Symbio's
Non-Toxic
Index
Thank you for visiting
this site.
Here you will find information
that I hope will enable you to use non-toxic methods that are available to
control various "pests" that you may come into contact with.
This index is limited to
"pests" that are insects or related arthropods such as mites and
ticks. It assumes you have been successful in at least identifying the pest in
question, and are seeking additional information about how best to control it
without the use of harmful chemicals or toxins.
It is important to keep in mind that the use of insecticides has been
associated with some childhood cancers including leukemia, lymphoma, and
neuroblastoma. This includes the application of chemical compounds to eliminate
insects by professional pest controllers and the frequency of use of household
insecticides by homeowners. Exposure to agricultural pesticides has been found
to be associated with neural tube and other birth defects in infants, asthma
and respiratory problems in adults, and neurodegenerative diseases such as
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases in the elderly. Wives of pesticide
applicators have been found to have a higher risk of spontaneous abortions.
Additionally, women who are chronically exposed to herbicides have a higher
risk for developing tumors of the central nervous system (i.e. meningiomas). Male
greenhouse workers who are exposed to higher levels of pesticides on a daily
basis than agricultural workers have shown lower fertility rates than unexposed
workers.
I have purposefully not
included pest life cycles here that would generally bore most individuals who
are seeking quick answers to their problems and not the details; however, if
you are interested in this, there are numerous web sites that will provide you
with all the detail you could possibly imagine about any given pest.
If you are unsure about
what pest is bothering you, and the photographs here are not helpful enough,
you can call your local extension agent, or any pest control operator where you
live, and I'm sure they will be able to determine exactly what you're dealing
with.
Most people are simply not
aware that there is a non-toxic method that will control or at least allow you
to tolerate any pest that you could possibly think of.
This information has been
culled from many sources, and is at the very least a modest, generalized source
that should enable you to have greater success in dealing with your particular
pest problems.
Though I believe the
information contained herein is accurate based on my own background and
experience in pest management, I cannot vouch for or validate all of this data,
as I certainly have not tested each of these methods.
The pest categories are
arranged alphabetically, and include the majority of non-farm related pests
that occur in homes and businesses.
This
page will be updated continuously and the data added to each category as more
information is received, so check back occasionally for the latest revisions.
Click on "pest"
below to teleport you to controls
ANTS
APHIDS
BEES
BEETLES
BUGS
CATERPILLARS AND MOTHS
COCKROACHES
CRICKETS AND GRASSHOPPERS
EARWIGS
FLEAS
FLIES
LEAFHOPPERS
LICE
MEALYBUGS
MITES
MOSQUITOES
SCALES
SCORPIONS
SILVERFISH AND FIREBRATS
SPIDERS
TERMITES
THRIPS
TICKS
WASPS
WHITEFLIES
GENERAL
To attract natural
enemies to your garden, try to avoid the use of pesticides, and, instead, plant
a wide variety of flowering plants.
Keep in mind
that because pesticides used outdoors are not selective, they can also reduce
the beneficial insects that prey on the insect you are after which can cause a
resurgence of the pest.
Resist the
urge to use fertilizers on lawns since they may contain pesticides that can
easily leach into storm drains and contaminate creeks and other waterways.
Pyrethrins
and their various derivatives (pyrethroids, pyrethrum, and permethrin) are
mentioned throughout this index as being more benign substances that can be
used against insects that are bothering you.
But remember that these are still chemicals, and just because they have
less pronounced effects against birds, mammals, and humans up the food chain,
it certainly does not mean that they do not have a negative impact on
organisms such as beneficial insects and spiders, crustaceans, amphibians,
reptiles, and fish. Use these substances
sparingly and infrequently, and, when possible, try to use
alternative methods from this index and from other “green” websites to resolve
your pest management problems. Indeed, published studies have shown a link
between the use of household pesticides and human diseases.
Commercially available wildflower seed mixes will help to increase the number
of beneficial arthropods in turf grasses.
Ground cover plants also provide a favorable microhabitat for the survival of
natural enemies.
Certain flowers such
as sunflowers, marigolds, cosmos, amaranthus, and portulaca attract birds such
as cardinals, finches, and sparrows that feed mainly on insects and weeds, and
not on fruit or berries.
Planting
sunflowers on organic farms will attract numerous beneficial insects which can
significantly reduce pest insects in cropped fields.
Planting fennel will also attract numerous beneficial insects.
To reduce future pest problems, save seeds from resistant plants.
To encourage beneficial predaceous bugs, beetles, and spiders, use organic
mulches.
To encourage beneficial parasitoids, plant early-blooming flowers such as
daisies.
Interplanting with basil can reduce pests in the
garden; as plants mature, leaves or flowers can then be used to make extracts
that can then be used as pesticides.
Beneficial ladybugs can be attracted with plantings of black locust, crimson
clover, flowering buckwheat, tansy, yarrow, and cosmos.
Beneficial wasps can be attracted by yarrow, white sweet clover, tansy, sweet
fennel, sweet alyssum, spearmint, Queen Anne's lace, hairy vetch, coreopsis,
rudbeckia, flowering buckwheat, cowpea, common knot wood, and caraway.
Beneficial predatory bugs prefer berseem, subterranean clover, and
baby-blue-eyes.
Beneficial flies are attracted by wild buckwheat, white sweet clover, toothpick
ami, sweet alyssum, soap-bark tree, Queen Anne's lace, caraway, California
lilac, flowering buckwheat, Scabiosa, wild carrot, yarrow, coreopsis,
coriander, cilantro, phacelia, and baby-blue-eyes.
Beneficial lacewings
like tansy, Queen Anne's lace, flowering buckwheat, caraway, and cosmos.
Solutions of aspirin or salicylic acid, when added to plants, can give
protection against plant pathogens and insects. Planting pansies, the shrub
meadowsweet, birch, or wintergreen, provides a protective effect for the soil.
Garlic extracts can suppress plant pathogens, pest nematodes, and many other
injurious insects.
Teflon barrier sprays and tape can be used on surfaces such as pet bowls, bird
feeders, pipes, garbage cans, trees, etc. to discourage access to these
structures.
Sprinkle black pepper on home surfaces to prevent pest access by ants, beetles,
silverfish, roaches, and moths.
Mothballs in the garbage, and bay leaves in drawers and cabinets, will
discourage bugs from visiting.
Fresh wormwood leaves crushed into a soggy pulp, and then mixed with some apple
cider vinegar can be used externally on humans and pets as an effective insect
repellent against biting flies and mosquitoes. Hang wormwood sprigs in closets
to repel moths and other insects.
Use a paste made from curry powder and water to relieve the itching and
inflammation of insect bites and stings. When the paste dries, the swelling and
pain should disappear as well.
To make an effective insect repellent, dilute one teaspoon of eucalyptus
essential oil in two cups of warm water. Apply externally to skin or use in a
spray bottle to mist plants.
Marigold root extracts have shown promise for use as an alternative pesticide.
Keep in mind that no kind of packaging, except cans, is totally resistant to
insect attack.
The use of
greenhouse plastic films and aluminum reflective mulches that block the
transmission of UV light can be used to repel insects such as whiteflies and
thrips.
If you plan on using silica gel or diatomaceous earth for your pest control
needs, remember that these agents become less effective as relative humidity increases.
Coca leaves are natural insecticides.
Try using sodium vapor lamps or yellow-tinted lights
instead of white, neon, or mercury vapor varieties to discourage insects from
visiting your home, garden, or facility.
Mercury-vapor is the most attractive light form to many insects.
ANTS
Ants are considered
to be the most successful and versatile of all insects, occurring practically
everywhere, and easily outnumbering in individuals all other land animals
combined.
Ants have chewing mouthparts and include predators, scavengers, and
plant-eaters. Some ants also feed on nectar, honeydew, and other substances.
The red imported fire ant (pictured above left) prefers warm climates, and is
very sensitive to ground vibrations. If their mound is disturbed, thousands of
workers will pour out and attack anything that moves. They bite and have a
painful, venomous sting.
Fire ants
prefer open, sunny pastures. They do not like shade and are vulnerable to low
temperatures. Indeed, sustained freezing air temperatures (about a week) will
likely kill off most colonies.
To reduce
the likelihood of fire ant mounds forming on your property, plant more shade
trees, shrubs, flower gardens, and ground covers.
Fire ants prefer to nest outdoors, but can build nests in wall voids, under
rugs, in boxes in the attic, and even in clothes in drawers. They also nest in
logs and under sidewalks. One colony
(including the queen) was even found nesting in the pollution control canister
of a frequently driven Buick Regal automobile.
When fire
ants enter homes, they may be looking for food or water, or more likely, it may
be due to flooding, which causes them to seek higher and drier ground. They
will bring in soil, and stay indoors as long as there is an available moisture
source, such as from a leaking water pipe.
Like other ants, fire ants are attracted to electrical devices such as
transformers, televisions, air conditioners, and computers.
Fire ants will eat almost anything. One of their favorite foods is Coca Cola.
They also like egg yolks, tuna fish, and grape jelly.
If fire ants are coming inside, follow the trail outside to the nest and
destroy it with boiling water.
To use hot water as a mound treatment for fire ants:
Pick a sunny,
but cool day when ants are near the surface.
Treat the
sunny side of the mound early in the morning.
Slowly pour
out about three gallons of boiling water per mound.
When pouring,
try to collapse as much of the mound as possible.
Break the
mound surface first if it appears hard or crusty.
Portable boilers are available commercially to treat mounds over a large area.
Fire ant
mounds can be leveled by plowing.
Some
evidence suggests that citrus peel extracts (orange oil) when mixed with water
can provide at least 80% control against fire ants when used as a mound drench.
Woodstream
Corporation’s Victor Poison-Free Ant & Roach Killer uses a 4% Japanese mint
essential oil blend as a slowly effective knockdown treatment for fire ants.
Jasmine oil
extracts are both repellent and toxic to fire ants.
An
Some studies
have shown that baking soda can protect electric utility boxes from
colonization from fire ants. It does not
appear to be as effective as a mound treatment, however.
Bushwhacker® is a boric acid bait registered for
fire ant control.
The decapitating phorid fly (Pseudacteon spp.) is a parasitoid that has
been used successfully to control fire ant populations. Fire ants are so afraid of this fly that they
have even been spotted riding piggyback (as lookouts) on their fellow ants to
protect them when they are out foraging for food.
Phorid flies
can be active at different times of the day and will attack worker ants that
are of different sizes. A single fly can
stop the foraging of hundreds of workers.
Some studies
have shown that phorid flies are attracted to fire ant colonies that have been
disturbed in some way. These
disturbances may be due to aggressive interactions with other ants, predators,
or humans. There is some suggestive
evidence that these flies may be attracted to the chemical cues (i.e. alarm pheromones)
released by these “disturbed” ants.
Nematodes (Steinernema spp.) and parasitic mites (Pyemotes tritici)
have been used with some limited success to control fire ants.
Some
evidence suggests that the larvae and pupal stages of fire ants are more
susceptible to nematode infection than adults.
Some fire ant colonies will actually abandon mounds that have been
treated with nematodes which can limit their effectiveness.
The pathogenic microsporidium (Thelohania solenopsae), a protozoan, has
shown some initial success in infecting fire ant colonies under controlled
conditions. It is one of the most common
microorganisms found in fire ant colonies.
This organism can infect all stages of fire ants, and will weaken the
queen so that eventually egg-laying will cease.
Super
colonies of fire ants that contain multiple queens can also be controlled with
the use of these microsporidia, although it may take a year or longer to
eliminate entire colonies.
When used in
combination with diatomaceous earth, this protozoan was able to induce much
higher mortalities of fire ant colonies in a shorter time period than either
control method alone.
Some
evidence suggests that certain fungi (e.g. Metarhizium anisopliae and
Beauveria bassiana) could provide a sufficiently high enough infection rate
to be used in fire ant control programs.
Carpenter ants (pictured above right) are larger black ants that may be found
in homes foraging for proteins or sweets.
They cannot sting, but can deliver a painful bite.
Carpenter
ants do not actually feed on wood.
They, instead, use the wood to burrow into to build their nests. They prefer to inhabit weathered, damaged, or
neglected portions of homes or structures.
Like fire
ants, carpenter ants will eat almost anything.
Pet food is one of their favorites.
Like other
sweet-loving ants, carpenter ants often “milk” aphids to obtain honeydew which
is used to feed other colony members. To
control their populations, please browse the section under APHIDS.
Carpenter ant
queens prefer to build colonies and nests outdoors, often in shade trees or
utility poles. They will also construct
colonies in fallen logs and tree stumps.
They do, however, sometimes construct so-called “satellite” nests
indoors.
In some
areas, carpenter ants are considered to be more of a structural threat to
buildings than termites.
Structures
that are most susceptible to damage by carpenter ants are frame houses without
basements, and any structures built near the edge of a forest.
Carpenter
ants tend to be more active at night.
Carpenter
ants prefer humid conditions, and can be found in areas of the home such as
kitchens, bathrooms, roofs, and attics where these conditions exist.
Suspect
carpenter ants if you notice what looks like pencil shavings in areas such as
closets, drawers, around electrical outlets, and under insulation.
Carpenter
ants make a characteristic noise if you tap on a wood wall near their nest. Use
an inverted water glass to listen in. The noise is like crumbling cellophane.
To
discourage carpenter ant visits:
Store foods
in ant-proof containers.
Prune tree
branches and vegetation away from structures.
Repair nearby
damaged trees to prevent carpenter ant access.
Burn or
remove tree stumps (do not bury them).
Store
firewood above the ground and far away from structures.
Check
firewood for ants before bringing indoors.
Keep external
surfaces of homes and structures free of holes and access points.
Repair any
weather-damaged areas of structures which also attract ants.
Treat wall
voids with borates or desiccants to keep out ants.
Additionally,
it would be helpful to repair any water leaks around the home, be sure gutters
aren’t clogged to allow for good drainage, improve ventilation in susceptible
areas such as attics and basements, and seal up areas where wiring enters
structures.
Use borates
to make wood toxic to carpenter ants indoors. For a more thorough discussion of
borate control for carpenter ants, please see the section under TERMITES.
Large
outdoor nests can be treated with less toxic pyrethroid insecticides such as
beta-cyfluthrin (e.g. Tempo®).
Portable
vacuums such as Bon-Aire Industries, Inc. Bon-Aire “SuperVac”® Canister
vacuum are available commercially to help collect entire colonies of these
ants.
For larger
indoor carpenter ant infestations, Isothermics, Inc. Heatwave® utilizes
directed hot air through flexible ducts into a structure by means of special
forced-air systems with the object of heating wood to at least 130 ° F., the lethal temperature for most
insects.
A 0.5 - 1%
boric acid/sugar water solution (10 - 25% sucrose) is an
effective control bait against most sweet-loving ants including the
pharaoh, carpenter, argentine, and fire ant. Patience will be necessary when
using this method, as it may take up to several months to obtain 100% control
of these colonies. These baits are
available commercially under brand names such as Drax Liquidator®, and Advance Liquid Bait®.
Use Maxforce®
gel bait stations to control indoor carpenter ant infestations.
Baits that work slowly (e.g. boric acid or borax) are more likely to eliminate
queens as well as workers.
Cookie
crumbs and peanut butter have been used successfully as excellent bait sources
for sweet-loving ants.
Pavement
ants can be controlled with a 5% boric acid solution mixed with equal parts of
peanut butter and Crisco™ cooking oil.
Argentine
ants and the odorous house ant seem to be particularly sensitive to cedar. Argentine ants, in particular, seem to avoid
cedar mulch as a nesting substrate. Using cedar mulches around the home and
garden may help repel these ants from your area.
In colder
months, Argentine ant colonies can often be found in compost piles and
decomposing vegetation, but are not typically active if temperatures drop below
50° F. Eliminating
these harborages can help reduce their numbers around your home or facility.
In
Peppermint,
tea tree, lemon, basil, and citronella oils have all been used as repellents
against argentine ants.
In temperate
climates, pharaoh ants actually prefer to nest inside homes or facilities,
and workers may search for food outdoors. In the tropics, or in areas where
warmer temperatures are maintained, nests are established outdoors.
Indoors, pharaoh ants are most commonly found foraging
around windows. This is partially due to
their fondness for dead insects that are often found on window sills which
serve as a food source for the colony.
Keeping this area clean will help reduce their numbers and prevent them
from needing an excuse to explore other areas of your home for food.
Drax® is an ant bait that is composed of
boric acid and mint jelly that is very effective against pharaoh ants.
Insecticide sprays alone are not effective in reducing or controlling most ant
populations.
To discourage ants (in general) from visiting your home or facility:
Wrap garbage
cans and recycling containers with Teflon tape or some other barrier.
Caulk and
seal crack-and-crevice entry points.
Store
unrefrigerated foods in metal cans or jars with tight-fitting rubber seals.
Keep the
kitchen as clean and dry as possible and free of even tiny food scraps.
Smear a thin
layer of Vaseline or sticky tape around the edges of pet bowls.
Use soapy
water and bleach to eliminate ant trail odors.
Vacuum
frequently to remove ants and their trail odors.
Weather-strip
windows and doors to prevent access.
Use baits
rather than insecticides if colonies become established.
There are ants that invade homes that will actually feed on and carry off the
soap left in your soap dish, and on the mildew and fungus that you might ignore
on your bathtub. You may want to consider switching to liquid soap or use an
ant-proof soapbox if you are unfortunate enough (like I have been) to encounter
these ants. Keeping a clean bathroom will prevent the appearance of
mildew-loving ants.
Many sweet-loving ants can easily penetrate plastic packaging including tough
shrink-wrap to get to food (I can tell you this from experience), and can easily
squeeze into grooves between metal screw top jar lids and glass. Refrigerate foods that come in plastic
packages (e.g. pasta, candy) and/or use jars with rubber seals to protect your
food from these ants.
Some ants may try to nest in your potted plants. Fill the overflow tray with
some soapy water to keep them away.
Cloves, dried coffee grounds, and pepper repel ants.
Mix two parts borax with one part sugar for a lethal ant poison.
Boric acid powder can be applied as a crack and crevice treatment against most
ants.
Many ant
species are attracted to electrical power sources. Smear a thin layer of
Vaseline around electrical outlets to prevent ant access into your home or
facility.
Ants will
not cross certain physical barriers such as chalk and Vaseline.
Ant guards
are also available commercially to protect electrical outlets, plumbing,
furniture, pet bowls, etc. to prevent ants from gaining access to homes and
other items.
Dorsey Inc. (Shellshock®) is a registered desiccant made up of 85%
diatomaceous earth and comes in a squeeze dust applicator, but is generally
slower acting as an ant control treatment (six weeks or more).
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used inside houses to treat
cracks, wall crevices, wall voids, and attics to repel most ants and deny
harborage in these areas.
Organic Plus Inc. (Organic Plus®) is a desiccant registered for home and
garden use for ant control.
Try soap sprays with citrus oil to control ants.
Garlic sprays have also been shown to be effective against ants.
Sprinkle
garlic powder along windowsills, and as a crack and crevice treatment to
discourage ants from entering your home or facility.
Ants can be excluded from shrubs and trees by spraying or painting a 4"
wide band of sticky adhesive around the stem or trunk.
Leaf-cutter ants can be repelled by the use of basil oil compounds.
Leaf-cutter
ants like Kelloggs® cornflakes. They build their fungus gardens on them.
Squeeze lemon juice on surfaces to prevent access by ants.
Catnip oil has
been shown to be repellent to fire ants, pharaoh ants, and carpenter ants.
Pyrethrin can be used in combination with silica gel or diatomaceous earth as
an effective indoors ant repellent.
APHIDS
Aphids, also called
plant lice or greenbugs, are a large group of small, soft-bodied insects that
are often found in large numbers sucking the sap from the leaves or stems of
plants.
Enormous populations of aphids can be built up in a very short time due to the
very high reproductive potential of these insects.
Aphids can also transmit viruses to plants, which can cause disease in fruits
such as raspberries, strawberries, bananas, and melons, and in many vegetables
as well.
Certain ants have a tendency to protect aphids from their natural enemies due
to their desire to "milk" them of sweet secretions, which nourish
colony members. To reduce ant numbers, you might consider using a bait station
in these circumstances. For more information about these baits, see the section
above under ANTS.
Aphids can be controlled by the following insect predators, which you can
purchase for your individual use, and are available commercially from producers
and suppliers:
Convergent Lady Beetle (Ladybug)(Hippodamia convergens)
Predatory Lady Beetle (Various spp.)
Lacewing (Chrysoperla spp.)
Chinese Preying Mantis (Tenodera sinensis)
Predatory Anthocorid (Pirate) Bugs (Orius spp.)
Aphid Midge (Aphidoletes aphidimyza)
Mirid Bug (Deraeocoris brevis)
Parasitoid Wasps (Various spp.)
Although ladybugs are excellent voracious aphid predators, keep in mind that
they have a natural tendency to disperse, and for this reason are generally not
recommended for use in gardens; however, they can be used successfully in
indoor environments such as greenhouses.
Ladybugs can
be used more successfully for control purposes when aphid densities on plants
are very high and localized. Ladybugs
are limited in their ability to search out and detect aphids and other prey over
larger distances. It is recommended that
they be released during the evening because bright sunlight can encourage their
flight.
Lacewing larvae are more cost effective as predators, and will consume aphids
and other pests as efficiently as ladybugs.
Spraying a solution of one part sugar with ten parts water onto
aphid-susceptible plants will encourage the arrival of beneficial insects.
Oils sprayed as an emulsion in water can be an effective control against
aphids. Fish, petroleum, or vegetable oils can be used.
A 2% emulsion of basil, avocado, or clove oil can also be used to repel aphids.
Cinnamon oil (e.g. Cinnacure®) sprays have shown some success in
controlling aphid populations.
Soap sprays with citrus oil or pyrethrin will provide a rapid knockdown effect
against aphids.
For aphid infestations, use soap or oil sprays for knockdown, then release
natural enemies. Soaps and oils must be sprayed directly on aphids to be
effective. Apply once a week in warm weather, and every two weeks when it is
cooler.
Avoid feeding plants nitrogen fertilizer which encourages plant growth and
aphids to reproduce.
Cover fruits and vegetables in garden beds with finely spun row cover material
sold at garden centers; these serve as a barrier to aphids and other insects
(not recommended for use in high temperatures because of the increased ground
temperature and humidity).
A more convenient method to remove aphids is to hose down plants with tap water
three times a week for about 30 seconds each time early in the day so that
leaves dry before nightfall.
Garlic sprays and hot pepper wax have been used to repel aphids.
Diatomaceous earth can be used as a desiccant control for aphids.
Neem tree
extract sprays can be an effective control against aphids as well; however,
some studies have shown that beneficial predatory insects and parasitoids are
negatively impacted as well.
Earwigs are effective night predators of aphids.
Blend eight tomato leaves and two cups of water for another effective spray for
aphid control.
Blending garlic with peppercorns has also been used effectively in spray
formulations to repel aphids.
Ground beetles will also consume aphids that have dropped off leaves due to
predation pressures by ladybugs and lacewings.
Sticky traps, tapes, and adhesives can be used to control and repel aphids.
Various fungi (e.g. Metarhizium anisopliae) be purchased commercially and used as
microbial insecticides to control aphids both in the garden and in greenhouses.
The European
corporation, Koppert, produces and distributes a fungal strain (i.e. Verticillium
lecanii) (Vertalec®) for aphid control.
Sabadilla powder is toxic to aphids.
The use of
reflective mulches can significantly reduce the number of aphids appearing on
many vegetable crops.
Greenhouse
experiments have shown that soil growth mediums made from food waste
(vermicomposts) were effective in reducing pest outbreaks of aphids. Plants were less attractive to aphids and
reduced their reproductive rates as well.
BEES
Honeybees,
bumblebees, and other bees are valuable beneficial insects that are responsible
for the pollination of numerous flowers and crops. Most of our vegetables,
fruits, and nuts are pollinated by bees.
The number
of honeybee colonies in the
Beekeepers
should avoid the use of toxic miticides and use non-chemical methods to control
mites in hives (See the section under MITES).
Africanized
or "killer" bees are also honeybees, but are more aggressive, and can
be dangerous to both humans and animals when threatened.
To lessen your exposure to "killer" bees:
Avoid wearing
perfumes and other sweet-smelling products.
Bees may feel
threatened by bright or dark colored clothing.
Loud noises
and shiny jewelry may also be perceived as threats.
These bees
are sensitive to vibrations such as from power equipment.
Bees only
attack when they believe the colony is threatened.
The hive
itself need not be disturbed for bees to attack.
Some colonies
may attack any threat within 100 feet of the hive.
Disturbed colonies
may remain agitated for up to 24 hours.
Bees will
typically attack the head and ankles.
If attacked,
cover your head and run away in a straight line.
Don't hide
underwater, as bees may wait for you to surface.
A swarm may
pursue you up to a quarter of a mile.
Bees are slow
fliers, so you may be able to outrun them.
Tobacco,
garlic, parsley, and holy basil can all be used to repel honey bees if
necessary.
BEETLES
Beetles comprise the
largest group of insects and contain about 40% of all known species.
Beetles have chewing mouthparts and include predators, plant-eaters, parasites,
and scavengers.
Beetles can also transmit viruses to plants which can
cause disease in some crops such a soybeans.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used inside houses to treat
cracks, wall crevices, wall voids, and attics to repel beetles and deny
harborage in these areas.
Organic Plus Inc. (Organic Plus®) is a desiccant registered for home and
garden use for beetle control.
Neem tree extract sprays can be used as well to effectively suppress beetle and
weevil populations.
The Japanese beetle (pictured above center), is one of the most widespread and
destructive pest of turf and landscape plants in the
Adult
Japanese beetles can feed on over 300 varieties of wild and cultivated plants,
and are generally more difficult to control because they are highly mobile. In
contrast, the egg and early grub stages are particularly sensitive to moisture
and temperature extremes, including desiccation.
Grubs are
the larval form of various beetles which can sometimes cause heavy damage to
the roots of turf grasses which they feed on.
Infested turf may appear to be gray or off color in appearance. Turf may also feel spongy when walked on due
to tunneling by these grubs. After the
roots have been consumed, sections of turf can be actually rolled up like a
carpet.
During the
summer, when Japanese beetles lay eggs in the soil, letting the grass grow a
little longer, and reducing watering of the turf, can also help decrease egg
laying by adult females.
Some
evidence suggests that plowing fields can reduce adult and larval beetle
populations in some row crops such as blueberries.
Sticky traps
and tapes can be used to control Japanese beetle adults on lawns.
Pheromone
traps have been used to attract large numbers of adult Japanese beetles on golf
courses, but these products are not yet available commercially.
Canola oil
and neem have been used as feeding deterrents against the Japanese beetle.
Peppermint,
ginger, and wintergreen oils can also be effective in reducing beetle
populations.
Parasitic
nematodes (e.g. Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp.) can
infect and reduce the number of white grubs and adults of the Japanese
beetle. Some nematodes simply chase
after their victim, while others will actually stand on their tails and leap
onto their prey as they pass by. Applying nematodes in August or September will
provide the most effective control of grubs.
Some
bacterial pathogens (e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis) are highly toxic to
Japanese beetle grubs in turf. Bacillus
thuringiensis has also been found
to be toxic to some weevil larvae (e.g. Diaprepes abbreviatus).
Some species
of fungi (e.g. Metarhizium
anisopliae and Beauveria
bassiana) can also infect Japanese beetle larvae.
Neem extracts
have also been shown to be harmful to Japanese beetle larvae by disrupting
their ability to develop into adults.
Use borates to make wood toxic to wood boring beetles. Borates are most
effective against the larval (grub) stage of these beetles.
For a more thorough discussion of borate control for wood boring beetles,
please see the section under TERMITES.
The Colorado potato beetle prefers to feed on solanaceous crops such as
potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, and eggplant.
Avoid
feeding plants nitrogen which encourages these beetles to reproduce.
A 2%
emulsion of basil or avocado oil can be used to repel the Colorado potato
beetle.
Black pepper and neem extracts have also
been used to control these beetles.
Some studies
have shown that catnip oil will stop
Evidence
from
The use of
straw mulch in fields significantly reduced damage by these beetles by
attracting beneficial insects that prey on them such as ladybird beetles,
lacewings, and stink bugs.
Studies from
Plastic
V-shaped trenches have been used successfully to trap these beetles.
The predatory stink bug (Perillus bioculatus) and the spined soldier bug
(Podisus maculiventris) can be purchased commercially to control the
Colorado potato beetle.
Insect
growth regulators (e.g. novaluron, hexaflumuron) have shown some promise in the
control of Colorado potato beetle larvae.
There is evidence to suggest, however, that non-target organisms such as
the spined soldier bug (Podisus maculiventris) can be adversely impacted
by this type of control. The soldier bug
is a predator that typically feeds on potato beetles.
Selected
fungi (e.g. Beauveria bassiana) have also been used in potato fields to
help control the Colorado potato beetle.
Turkish
studies have shown that selected bacteria (e.g. Bacillus pumilus and B.
sphaericus) are effective control agents of Colorado potato beetle larvae.
Some
evidence suggests that adult potato beetles can be attracted to objects such as
paper boards or large beads that are colored with yellow and black stripes, or
to those objects with yellow and light-green patterns.
June beetles
prefer to lay eggs on golf courses, pastures, and fields that have been treated
with organic covers and fertilizers such as manures, compost, and hay. Their
grubs feed on the organic matter at the base of grass roots and are fond of
short, mowed grasses.
Keep in mind
that most damage associated with grubs is actually caused by raccoons, skunks,
and other animals, which often dig up lawns to feed on grubs.
The larvae
of robber flies (Promachus yesonicus) have been used with success in
On Korean
golf courses, the use of entomopathogenic nematodes in combination with the
fungus, Beauveria brongniartii, provided good biological control over
white grubs in the soil.
Carpet beetle larvae (adult pictured above right) will eat just about anything
including carpets, grain, skin, and even other insects. The adults do not cause damage to fibers and
foods in your home (they feed on pollen and nectar), are attracted to lights,
and often access homes through unscreened windows.
Because
adult beetles are highly attracted to light sources, they can often be found
(often dead) at the base of lamp fixtures inside your house that are closest to
windows. If you happen to use compact
fluorescent bulbs, you may see them accumulate on the flattened-out base of
these bulbs. This can happen despite window screening due to holes in screens
or areas where the screening may not join the window frame precisely.
To
discourage their visits, check and repair or replace your screening first, and
then try moving bright light sources away from windows. You can also try using low-intensity bulbs, but
be sure to check window sills and around lamp bases to see if they are still
getting in. Keep in mind that porch and
patio lights that are kept on in the evening will also attract adult beetles to
your home.
Frequent
vacuuming of carpets will keep carpet beetle populations low. If you have a severe infestation, steam
cleaning your carpets may be needed.
If you
notice damaged clothing, it may be best to just trash them due to possible
infestation from eggs and larvae.
Washing infested clothes, and then drying them in a clothes dryer (run
at high temperature for at least 30 minutes) will eliminate carpet beetle eggs
and larvae.
Carpet
beetle larvae will also feed on grains that can found in items such as boxed
cereals. Be sure to check these food sources
and discard if they are infested. It is
best to store cereal boxes and other grains either in tight fitting jars or in
the refrigerator to protect them from larvae.
Boric acid powder can be used as a treatment against carpet beetles.
Low temperatures will also keep carpet beetle populations suppressed.
Cedar wood
and cedar oil vapor will repel carpet beetles.
Some studies
out of
Cover fruits and vegetables in garden beds with finely-spun row cover material
sold at garden centers; these serve as a barrier to plant-eating beetles and
other insects (not recommended for use in high temperatures because of the
increased ground temperature and humidity).
Garlic sprays have also been shown to be effective beetle repellents.
Soap sprays with citrus oil or pyrethrin can be an effective control against
some plant-eating beetles.
Some beetles and weevils (e.g. grain weevil pictured above left) that infest
grain storage facilities and processing plants may also show up occasionally in
your packaged beans, seeds, cereal, rice, and pasta products that you bring
home from your local grocery store. These
insects do not bite or sting, and will not have the ability to transmit any
diseases to humans.
To prevent
these insects from becoming your roommates, pay attention to packaged grain
products and pet food bags that you purchase at your local store for any
evidence of infestation. Beetles and
weevils often invade grains if the plastic packaging has been damaged in some
way, allowing them access. If you happen
to notice small, brown, cylindrical objects floating in your pot of boiling
water containing noodles or rice, these would be them.
In grocery
stores, stored product insects seem to prefer to congregate in pet food areas.
Store grains
in sealed glass or metal containers or just refrigerate them. This will also discourage ants from feeding
on them also. Adding a bay leaf to each
container or canister will help repel these insects as well.
Diatomaceous
earth and silica gel can both be used safely to disinfest storage bins from
grain weevils and other insects such as flour and grain beetles.
High temperatures and cold storage are used by many
food service companies to minimize damage from stored product insects.
Neem has been shown to be very successful in reducing
populations of insects that infest stored grain such as bean or rice weevils, red
flour beetles, and grain beetles.
Combining diatomaceous earth with neem along with grain movement (gentle
tumbling) can help to enhance the effectiveness.
Eucalyptus and citrus oil extracts have insecticidal
properties against some storage insects such as the red flour beetle and the
lesser grain borer.
Eugenol and
camphor, essential oils found in basil and some other plants, have been shown
to be toxic to some stored product insects such as grain and rice weevils and
red flour beetles.
Some vegetable
oils (e.g. corn oil) have been used in
Nutmeg oil
has also been used as a grain fumigant against the red flour beetle. In fact,
nutmeg oil has caused some beetles and grubs to just stop feeding.
Cinnamaldehyde,
an extract of the spice, cinnamon, a common food flavoring, has shown some
effectiveness as a fumigant against the red flour beetle and some weevils (e.g.
rice weevil).
Essential oils of anise, cumin, oregano, palm,
turmeric, catnip, mugwort, and rosemary, have all shown varying levels of
toxicity against some stored product insects.
Pea flour
has also been shown to be toxic when used in storage bins against some weevils
and red flour beetles.
In
The
warehouse pirate bug, Xylocoris flavipes, is an effective predator and
control agent against stored product insects such as the red flour beetle.
Pyrethrum, a
botanical derived from Chrysanthemum flowers is effective against some
stored product insects. There is some evidence, however, to suggest that they
are also becoming increasingly resistant to the use of pyrethroids.
Selected
fungi (e.g. Metarhizium anisopliae) have also been used with some
success in biocontrol programs against insects such as grain borers.
Entomopathogenic nematodes
(e.g. Steinernema spp.) have been used to control certain storage bin
insects such as grain and flour beetles.
Microwave irradiation
treatments have been used to induce beetle and weevil storage insect mortality
in experiments in
"Bugs"
belong to a specific family of insects (Heteroptera) and can be identified
by characteristics similar to the assassin bug (pictured above left) or the bed
bug (pictured above right).
Bugs are a large group whose members have piercing mouthparts and include
predators, parasites, and plant-eaters.
The triatomine assassin bug (also called the “kissing” bug) is a vector of
Chagas' disease in humans. These bugs
may carry a parasite called a trypanosome in their blood, which can sometimes
transmit this disease to humans and animals.
Chagas’
disease is transmitted to humans through the bugs’ feces, which is sometimes
inconveniently left behind by the bug during or after feeding. If the contaminated feces enter the
bloodstream of the host through the bite, then the host can become infected. Infection can also occur if food or water is
consumed that harbors the parasites.
Triatomine
bugs feed on blood, and live in or near homes where they hide during the day in
shaded areas such as cracks or crevices, under beds, etc. They become active at night, searching for a
warm-blooded host.
During the
day, these bugs prefer shelters that provide them with very high temperatures
and very low humidities.
Brazilian
studies have shown that these bugs prefer to hide during the day in roofing
materials (i.e. roofing tiles) used in the construction of domestic animal
shelters (e.g. goat/sheep corrals, henhouses, and pigpens).
Homes with
dirt floors may be more at risk for infestation based on rural Mexican
findings.
Studies out
of the Ecuadorian Amazon seem to indicate that the susceptibility to being
bitten by one of these bugs increases if you live in a house with a thatched
roof or if the walls are open to the outside, or are of mixed construction
materials.
Brazilian
studies have concluded that house proximity to wooded or forested areas also
increases risk of infestation.
Triatomine
bugs prefer to feed on animals that people tend to domesticate such as rodents,
cats, dogs, chickens and other birds, pigs, goats, sheep, rabbits, horses, and
cows. They also can be found among wild
animals including nest-building mammals and birds.
Among these
animals, chickens seem to be one of their favorites, as they often seek refuge
in chicken coops. Some evidence suggests that homes or other buildings that are
built nearby (within 40 feet) are more susceptible to being invaded by them.
Some
evidence from Argentina suggests that your odds of being bitten by one of these
bugs increases significantly with the number of dogs, cats, or chickens that
are in the same house with you.
Studies from
Like other
blood-feeding insects, triatomine bugs seem to be attracted to the CO2 exhalations from human and animal breath.
Because
these bugs are attracted to CO2,
traps baited with yeast have had some success in capturing these insects in
experiments done in
Deforestation
and immigration have been associated with an increase in the transmission rates
of Chagas’ disease.
Some
evidence out of
Bed nets
impregnated with the pyrethroid, deltamethrin, have also shown some success in
reducing exposure to these assassin bugs.
Studies from
In
Evidence suggests that triatomine bugs that vector
Chagas’ disease are also repelled by Deet®.
Some studies have shown that assassin bug nymphs are
susceptible to pathogenic fungi (e.g. Evlachovaea sp.,
Metarhizium anisopliae, and Beauveria
bassiana). Daily high humidities
seem to be an important factor when applications are made to more effectively
control populations.
Insect growth regulators
(e.g. triflumuron) have shown some promise in inhibiting the development of
assassin bug nymphs.
Some preliminary evidence out of
An Argentine study suggests that extracts from sage
(i.e. Salvia gilliessi) may inhibit the progression in cell cultures of
parasites that cause Chagas’ disease.
Argentine studies have also shown that peppertree
extracts (i.e. Schinus molle) are good repellents against assassin bug
nymphs.
Bugs (in the garden) can be controlled by the following insect predators which
you can purchase for your individual use, and are available commercially from
producers and suppliers:
Mirid Bug (Deraeocoris brevis)
Spined Soldier Bug (Podisus maculiventris)
Parasitoid Wasps (Various spp.)
Bed bugs (pictured above right) are flattened wingless insects that hide during
the day along cracks and crevices in beds, mattresses, furniture, walls, and
floors. They have also been found behind
electrical outlets. They come out only
at night, or in the early morning hours to feed on their preferred host which
is humans.
Suspect you have bed bugs if you notice reddish brown
or black droppings or streaks (dried blood) along mattress seams, in wall
cracks, etc. You also may notice
clusters of eggs or egg cases glued to these surfaces.
Some heavy infestations have produced odors resembling
the smell of fresh raspberries, but this is not always the case.
Bed bugs are attracted to humans by heat, body odors
such as from sweat, and expired breath (CO2).
Like mosquitoes, bed bugs are
repelled by air movement and can be flushed out of hiding places with forced
air. They also avoid the light, so a
flashlight can be used to search for them.
Bed bugs tend to bite in areas around the face, neck,
and arms. Although they could theoretically
vector disease due to their life history, they are not known to transmit
diseases to humans.
After feeding, a bed bug may not feed again for
another week or more, but can live more than a year without feeding.
Bed bugs infestations tend to be highest where people
are crowded together in specific areas such as in dormitories, hostels, hotels,
fraternities, apartments, rooming houses, homeless shelters, and refugee
camps. They are spread primarily by
humans, and are also becoming more common due to increased global traveling by
people in general.
To reduce your home exposure to bed bugs:
Launder
clothing and sleepwear regularly to remove trapped bed bugs.
Discard
ripped or torn mattresses.
Steam clean
beds and bedding.
Vacuum, steam
clean, or replace carpets.
Seal cracks
in floors and walls.
Replace or de-infest wooden furniture.
Replace or
de-infest floorboards, baseboards, and wooden trim.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used
inside houses to treat cracks, wall crevices, wall voids, and attics to repel
bed bugs and deny harborage in these areas.
Rooms with bed bug infestations can be treated with
heat treatments (i.e. space heaters) which can induce mortality in all stages
including the eggs at 115º F after about 10 minutes.
Bed bugs can survive long periods of below freezing
temperatures; however, about fifteen minutes of exposure to a temperature of
about -26° F will kill all stages including eggs.
Because dry ice emits CO2, traps can be used to attract
bed bugs away from their hiding places. Dry ice can also be used to disinfest
personal items in thermal containers.
Zippered mattress and box spring covers can be
purchased and used to protect beds from exposure to bed bugs. Keep in mind that not all mattress covers are
alike. Small holes near zippers, for
example, may still allow for larval bed bug access. Mattress Safe LLC is an example of a company
that markets covers that are “certified” to be bed bug resistant.
Boric acid (20%) can also be used to treat cracks and crevices for bed bug
control.
In Tanzanian villages, bed nets treated with
pyrethroids have been used to control infestations of bed bugs; however,
resistance can become more prevalent with their increased use.
When
properly trained, bed bug-sniffing dogs have been very successful at locating
infestations within structures such as homes and hotels, and are much less prone
to errors compared to humans when performing inspections. Dogs can detect live bed bugs and viable bed
bug eggs as well.
Use soap sprays with citrus oil or pyrethrin to reduce plant bug populations.
Garlic and neem tree extract sprays have also been used with success against
plant bugs.
Cover fruits and vegetables in garden beds with finely-spun row cover material
sold at garden centers; these serve as a barrier to plant-eating bugs and other
insects (not recommended for use in high temperatures because of the increased
ground temperature and humidity).
Moths (like butterflies)
are common insects which can be recognized by scales on their wings which come
off like dust when handled.
Caterpillars are the immature or larval stage of the adults. They are mostly plant-feeders, but also can
feed on fabrics and food. Some are also predaceous on other insects.
Clothes moths (pictured above left) are small (about 1/2 inch) moths that may
be seen fluttering about in closets or over fabrics. They do not damage
clothing, and, in fact, are not known to feed at all.
Their caterpillars (also pictured above left) are the problem, as they feed
mainly on wool, silk, furs, and other animal products such as feathers, hair,
and leather. They have been found in
unusual locations such as in abandoned owl nests. They cannot consume synthetic fibers such as
polyester.
Clothing which is left undisturbed for some time, or stored in dark, exposed
places (like closets), are most susceptible to injury by these caterpillars.
To de-infest clothing, thoroughly brush, shake, and hang clothing outdoors in
the bright sun for several hours before bringing them back indoors.
Brushing and shaking removes eggs. Larvae are repelled by sunlight, and will
fall off of clothing if exposed long enough.
To lessen your home exposure to clothes moths:
Store
susceptible garments in hole-free plastic storage bags or airtight chests.
Be sure
clothing is free of all eggs and larvae before storing.
Pest-free
fabrics stored in areas below 45 ° F. will be free of damage.
Dry clean
wool or other sensitive garments to remove larvae.
Laundering
less sensitive clothing in hot water will also remove larvae.
Dust and vacuum
frequently in closets and other remote areas.
Woolen fabrics stored in attics that are regularly exposed to temperatures
above 100° F. for many hours during the day can be protected from damage
by clothes moths.
Keep in mind
that soiled or dirty fabrics are more susceptible to attack than clean ones.
Lemon verbena, French marigold, coriander,
southernwood, lavender, wormwood, whole cloves, cedar wood, and cedar oil
vapors can be effective repellents against clothes moths.
Lowering room temperatures will also discourage clothes moths.
Neem extracts have been shown to reduce feeding
responses and survival of clothes moth larvae.
Dry ice can be used as a fumigant against clothes
moths.
Leaf-feeding caterpillars (e.g. pictured above right) can be controlled by the
following insect predators which you can purchase for your individual use, and
are available commercially from producers and suppliers:
Lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea)
Chinese Preying Mantis (Tenodera sinensis)
Spined Soldier Bug (Podisus maculiventris)
Parasitoid Egg Wasp (Trichogramma spp.)
Mirid Bug (Deraeocoris brevis)
Hot pepper wax has been shown to be an effective repellent against leaf miners.
Garlic, black pepper, and neem tree extract sprays have been used effectively
to control larvae and adults.
Spiders and ground beetles in the garden will discourage the
appearance of leaf miners and other caterpillars.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used in the garden to suppress
caterpillars.
Nematode (parasitic worm) sprays can be used to control caterpillars.
The use of soap sprays with citrus oil or pyrethrin can be used to repel
caterpillars.
Fish, petroleum, and vegetable oils have all been shown to be effective
deterrents against caterpillars.
Sweet and holy basil plants in the garden will also discourage the appearance
of caterpillars.
Cover fruits and vegetables in garden beds with finely spun row cover material
sold at garden centers; these serve as a barrier to caterpillars and other
insects (not recommended for use in high temperatures because of the increased
ground temperature and humidity).
Sticky traps, tapes, and tree wraps can be used to control and repel
caterpillars.
Various fungi (e.g. Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana)
can be purchased commercially and used as microbial insecticides to help
further reduce caterpillar populations.
Viruses are also commercially available which can help manage
plant-eating caterpillars such as leaf rollers and armyworms.
The Indianmeal moth is an insect whose larvae feed on stored
products such as flour and pet food. For
a more thorough discussion of control options, please see the section under BEETLES.
COCKROACHES
Roaches belong to a
large group of very familiar insects that includes crickets and grasshoppers.
Roaches have chewing mouthparts and can feed on practically anything.
Roaches do not directly transmit disease; however, they can contaminate food
with an enormous variety of microbial pathogens including the eggs and larvae
of parasites such as pinworms, tapeworms, and roundworms; bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, and E. coli; and fungi such as yeast, many
of which can lead to gastrointestinal problems and infections in humans.
Roaches also have an unpleasant odor, and, as most of us know, their presence
can be very annoying.
Roaches have also been shown to contribute to the increased severity of
symptoms among asthma sufferers and others with respiratory problems due to the
presence of their cast skins and feces which can be allergens.
Some studies
indicate that roach allergen exposure early in life could even be used as a predictor
for the development of asthma.
Detergents
such as Spic ‘N Span™ can be used to remove these allergens, but be sure
to discard the rinse water to prevent the allergens from being redistributed
around the house.
Portable
vacuums such as Miracle Marketing’s Optimus® HEPA are available
commercially to help remove roach allergens more effectively.
To discourage roach appearances, caulk closed cracks
at the interface of walls and floors, counters, backsplashes on sinks, and around
electrical boxes and other wall-hung fixtures where roaches live.
The German roach (pictured above left) prefers to
settle in small, tight spaces. It is most common in kitchens and bathrooms.
Sealing cracks greatly reduces its preferred habitat. This roach is also highly attracted to odors
(pheromones) in the feces of other German roaches. Good sanitation and vacuuming can be
effective tools in reducing their numbers.
German roaches can be attracted to baits that contain
bread, stale beer, peanut butter, or Jack Daniel’s Whiskey®. Among these attractants, bread and beer
combos seem to draw the most German roaches.
Unlike American roaches, German roaches must eat in
order to reproduce. They also prefer
fats over proteins and carbohydrates. If
water is available, they can live for about a month without food.
The American roach (pictured above center) is considered more of a tropical
species, and prefers temperatures over 80 ° F. and humid conditions. It is often found in basements, restaurants,
bakeries, and grocery stores. These roaches often cannot survive very long in
residential homes if humidities fall below 45% and moisture or water is
unavailable.
The American
roach is one of the fastest animals on Earth (the tiger beetle is the fastest land
animal), capable of reaching speeds of 200 miles per hour in short bursts. At top speeds, they have been videotaped
running on only two legs, much like a human.
Smokybrown
roaches (pictured above right), which are actually large and shiny black, can
be found mostly outdoors on structures around suburban homes. They are often
found flying towards porch lights.
Smokybrowns
occasionally enter homes where they can be found in areas where moistures
levels are high. They also like to infest attics, and like American and German
roaches, can be reduced or eliminated with the use of blowers or fans since
they are very vulnerable to drying out.
In
A bowl of
cheap wine placed under the sink will kill roaches; they drink, fall in and
die.
Mix four parts borax, four parts flour, one part cocoa, and put mix wherever
you see roaches run. Mixing equal parts
of boric acid and oat flour will also produce an effective bait for controlling
roaches.
Set out water and dry cement where roaches visit; they will ingest both and
die.
Ultrasound is not effective in repelling roaches.
Cedar, Japanese mint, scotch spearmint, and bay leaves are good natural
repellents and make good barrier treatments.
Woodstream
Corporation’s Victor Poison-Free Ant & Roach Killer® uses a 4%
Japanese mint essential oil blend as an effective knockdown treatment for
American and German roaches.
Ordinary
soap sprays or common household cleaners (e.g. Fantastik®, Dawn® and 409®) can also be used against roaches
for similar knockdown effects; often they will induce mortality as well.
Cleaners are more effective against German roaches and their nymphs. American
roaches are less susceptible and may survive the effects of these sprays.
Dorsey Inc. (Shellshock®) is a desiccant made up of 85% diatomaceous
earth and comes in a squeeze dust applicator. It is slower acting (six weeks or
more), but roaches will stay away longer.
Desiccants
such as silica gels and diatomaceous earth products stimulate roaches and other
insects that come into contact with them to immediately seek out a moisture
source. Without a water source, they
will quickly dehydrate and die.
Dorsey Inc. (Repeel®) is a desiccant made up of diatomaceous earth and
citrus oil from orange peel and is useful as a barrier treatment.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used inside houses to treat
cracks, wall crevices and voids, and attics to repel roaches and deny harborage
in these areas.
Organic Plus Inc. (Organic Plus®) is a desiccant registered for home and
garden use for roach control.
Pyrethrum, a botanical derived from Chrysanthemum flowers is effective
against roaches.
Pyrethrins
are considered to be slightly toxic to humans and animals, and should
therefore be used with some caution. There is some evidence, however, to
suggest that German roaches are becoming increasingly resistant to the use of
pyrethroids.
Use silica gel plus pyrethrin (e.g. Drione®) in wall voids to prevent
roaches from migrating between rooms; the short-lived pyrethrin serves as a
repellent barrier, while the silica gel provides long-term residual control.
Sprinkle
boric acid powder or borax along baseboards, under and behind refrigerators and
stoves, at the back edges of pantries and closets, and along cracks and
crevices to repel roaches.
Blue Diamond
Manufacturing produces baits, gels, and pastes (Blue Diamond® and Pro-Joe-S®)
which contain varying concentrations of boric acid, and which can also be
purchased commercially.
A 0.5 - 2%
boric acid/sugar water solution (10 - 25% sugar) is an
effective control bait against German roaches.
Boric acid
is inorganic, does not emit toxic vapors, and is considered to be one of the most
effective and cheapest treatments used against roaches. Roaches do not easily develop resistance to
boric acid treatments. Boric acid baits
are also less repellent to roaches than are baits composed of hydramethylnon
(e.g. Maxforce® and Combat®). Boric acid treatments also provide
long-term residual protection, but are also slower acting as a control method.
Use Maxforce® or Combat® bait stations along walls and inside
equipment wherever you actually see roaches. These baits contain
hydramethylnon, an odorless, solid chemical compound that is considered to be slightly
toxic to humans and animals. They should
be used with some caution, but are certainly far less toxic than residual
spraying with insecticides. In general, hydramethylnon bait stations also take
longer to control and remove roaches from an area, but offer longer lasting
protection.
Some Maxforce®
and Combat® bait stations may contain fipronil as an active ingredient
instead of hydramethylnon. Fipronil is even less toxic to humans and mammals
than hydramethylnon due to its bait formulations containing very low
concentrations of the active ingredient. Fipronil gels or baits are among the
fastest ways to eliminate roach populations, so, if you are in a hurry, this is
what you want to use.
Nematode bait stations can be effective against roaches, but are much slower
acting.
BioLogic produces a gel formulation (BioRoach® and Roach
Stopper®) which contains live nematodes in bait stations which can be used
in areas where roaches frequent. Roaches
are attracted to the water in these baits, and are then infected and killed by
the nematodes. Nematodes are microscopic parasitic worms that are harmless to
humans and animals, but are able to infect and kill insects.
For baits to
be effective, proper placement is essential so that roaches can find them
easily. Favored locations are behind
refrigerators and stoves, underneath kitchen and bathroom sinks, and in areas
where walls interface with floors since roaches prefer walking along or near
baseboards.
Homes that
maintain good sanitary conditions will also help provide better control of
roaches compared to those with moderate or poor conditions.
Garlic oil
is highly repellent to German roaches.
Studies out
of
The use of talc with citrus oil soap sprays will facilitate cuticular
penetration and control roaches more effectively.
Most roaches are repelled by airflow, and the managed use of air movement has
been used successfully to control roaches. Most roaches tested are repelled by
air velocities of four meters per second or higher.
When using airflow systems to reduce roach populations, be careful to avoid
contaminating ventilation systems with roach allergens. Use filters that stop
or neutralize these allergens.
Roaches are also repelled by light, temperature extremes, and low relative
humidities.
Use Teflon barriers to protect pet food bowls from contact with roaches.
Pheromone traps and fecal extracts have both been used to attract roaches to
bait stations.
Woodstream Corporation’s Victor Roach Pheromone Trap® is an effective,
sticky, baited pheromone trap used to monitor, control and reduce roach
populations. It is now commercially available for public use. The trap contains
a food bait plus an aggregation pheromone that lures
roaches to a sticky glued surface. It is suitable for indoor or outdoor use.
The oils of catnip, and fruit extracts of Osage orange, have been shown in
preliminary studies to be repellent to German roaches. Catnip is also repellent to American roaches.
Argentine studies have shown that peppertree extracts
(i.e. Schinus molle) are toxic and repellent against German roaches.
Nutmeg seed
extracts have shown some toxicity to German roaches in laboratory experiments
in
Selected
fungi (e.g. Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae) have also been used with some success
in biocontrol programs against American and German roaches.
EcoScience
Corp. markets a fungus-based bait station (Biopath®) for control of
cockroaches.
Some
evidence suggests that noviflumuron, a chitin inhibitor, can be used in baits
to control populations of German roaches.
They have been found to be just as effective as other traditional bait
stations such as Maxforce®.
Chitin
synthesis inhibitors (insect growth regulators) act by preventing insects from
successfully molting, and have been widely used around the world. These
chemicals work at very low concentrations, and are considered safe for use
around people, mammals, and other non-target organisms. They may, however, take longer to eliminate
entire local populations.
Some
research suggests that combining bait stations using fungi and boric acid
formulations can actually cut the time needed for mortality in roaches.
Some
preliminary reports out of
CRICKETS AND
GRASSHOPPERS
Crickets and
grasshoppers belong to a large group of very familiar insects that includes
roaches.
Like roaches, crickets and grasshoppers have chewing mouthparts and can feed on
practically anything.
Crickets will eat living and dead insects, fruits and vegetables, plants,
grasses, seeds, and even textiles such as silk and wool. One of their favorite foods is beer.
Crickets are
nocturnal and prefer warmer conditions.
They often come into homes if conditions are colder outside.
Crickets can be attracted to baits that contain peanut
butter.
To discourage crickets from visiting your home or facility:
Weather-strip
windows and doors to prevent access.
Caulk and seal
crack-and crevice entry points.
Reduce cricket
habitat by keeping grasses mowed.
Clear vegetation,
woodpiles, and other debris from around your home.
Use a vacuum
to remove crickets indoors.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used
inside houses to treat cracks, wall crevices and voids, and attics to repel
crickets and deny harborage in these areas.
Use garlic or soap sprays with citrus oil or pyrethrin to control crickets and
grasshoppers.
The use of borates will also repel crickets.
Neem tree extract sprays have also been used successfully against crickets and
grasshoppers.
Cover fruits and vegetables in garden beds with finely-spun row cover material
sold at garden centers; these serve as a barrier to these plant feeders and
other insects (not recommended for use in high temperatures because of the
increased ground temperature and humidity).
The harvesting of pest grasshoppers for human consumption
is a neglected but very effective form of control. Grasshoppers, like many insects, are high in
protein and low in fat and are a great alternative and nutritious food source
(just don’t eat insects that have been sprayed with pesticides).
Mole crickets (pictured above center), which can cause heavy damage to pastures
and turf grasses by tunneling through the root system, can be controlled with
the use of parasitic nematodes, or with sub-surface treatments of the fungi, Beauveria
bassiana.
The use of fungal agents to control mole crickets has
produced mixed results. In some
experiments, higher dosage rates seemed to provide less control, indicating
that some crickets may have the ability to detect and avoid the fungi. Sub-surface applications of fungi may be
necessary to reach those crickets that may have retreated deeper into the soil
and beneath the root zone.
Indian studies have shown that soil bacteria (e.g. Bacillus
thuringiensis) are about 80% effective in controlling mole crickets after about
three days in crops such as soybean.
Some evidence suggests that mole crickets can be
flushed from the turf by using soapy water.
Entomopathogenic nematodes (e.g. Steinernema
scapterisci) have been used successfully against mole crickets. ‘Nematac ™ S’ is an example of
a nematode-based product that is available commercially to homeowners for mole
cricket control.
Three Brazilian biological control agents, a
parasitoid fly (Ormia depleta), a parasitic nematode (Steinernema
scapterisci), and a parasitoid wasp (Lara
bicolor) have achieved some success in limiting the growth potential of
mole crickets on
Protozoan (e.g. Nosema locustae) and fungal (e.g. Metarhizium
anisopliae) pathogens have been used to successfully reduce populations of
crickets and grasshoppers. Studies out of
The fungi, Metarhizium anisopliae, and Beauveria
bassiana, in particular, have become useful organisms in the management of
locusts and grasshoppers. Adults and
emerging nymphs are most vulnerable to infection. Although mortality takes longer (several
days), the use of these myco-insecticides has provided much needed relief from
migratory swarms especially in sub-Saharan
In
Some soil bacteria (e.g. Bacillus
thuringiensis) have also been effective in controlling locusts in Chinese
experiments.
In
Entomopathogenic nematodes (e.g. Heterorhabditis
megidis and Steinernema feltiae) have also been used to effectively
control locusts.
Experiments with the
pathogenic microsporidium (i.e. Johenrea
locustae) have shown some success in reducing feeding and survival of
locusts in the laboratory.
Insect growth regulators (e.g. diflubenzuron) have
been used successfully to control locusts and grasshoppers worldwide. They work by preventing grasshoppers from
molting, but may take several weeks before maximum control is attained.
Another insect growth regulator (i.e. triflumuron) has
also been tested with good success against locusts in
EARWIGS
Earwigs are
nocturnal insects that are mainly scavengers but are also predaceous on other
insects.
Earwigs hide during the day in cracks, crevices, and in other similar places.
Earwigs do not bite, but can maneuver their abdomen to inflict a sometimes
painful pinch.
Caulk areas to prevent home access.
Diatomaceous earth and silica gel can both be used inside houses to treat
cracks, wall crevices and voids, and attics to repel earwigs and deny harborage
in these areas.
Organic Plus Inc. (Organic Plus®) is a desiccant registered for home and
garden use for earwig control.
Because earwigs are excellent insect predators that feed on some of the pests
mentioned in this index, outdoors and garden control is not recommended.
FLEAS
Fleas are small,
flattened, wingless insects that feed as adults on the blood of birds and
mammals. Their larvae feed on detritus
and the dried blood remains left behind by adult fleas.
Fleas are vectors of some human diseases including plague, typhus, tungiasis,
and tapeworms.
Some
individuals who are not bitten may also react allergically to flea secretions
and detritus that can become airborne.
Adult fleas
are stimulated to activity by noise and vibrations, heat, and CO2.
Fleas have
exceptional jumping abilities and may live for over a year.
Homes with indoor cats and dogs can quickly become infested with cat fleas,
which will also feed on humans if they have the chance. Flea bites on people can often be found on
the lower limbs, especially around the ankles.
The vast
majority of fleas found in homes are cat fleas.
Cat fleas seem to prefer to settle and feed on the head and neck area of
cats. Cat owners may want to keep in
mind that the back and neck is especially favored since it is more difficult
for the cat to groom this area efficiently.
Cat fleas
can be attracted to light traps, and some studies seem to indicate a preference
for flickering green lights over other kinds.
Ultrasound
is not effective in repelling fleas.
Flea sprays
and “bombs” add toxic residues to surfaces and are not recommended. Some sensitive individuals may react
allergically to these substances which puts them at risk. Infants and toddlers will also be more at
risk from exposure to these neurotoxins.
Use
citrus-based oil or soap sprays with pyrethrin for control of cat fleas.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used inside houses to treat
cracks, wall crevices and voids, and attics to repel fleas and deny access in
these areas.
Silica gel can also be rubbed into the fur of cats and dogs for an effective
flea control.
Organic Plus Inc. (Organic Plus®) is a desiccant registered for home and
garden use for flea control.
Pyrethrum, a botanical derived from Chrysanthemum flower petals is
effective against fleas.
Sprinkle boric acid powder on carpets to repel fleas.
Cedar oil has
been shown to be toxic to adult fleas.
Flea Nix® is a product that controls fleas by
using a borate powder solution to clean carpets. Borates work by preventing flea larvae from
developing.
Boric acid
and borates are very effective at killing both flea larvae and eggs in carpets.
Common table
salt is also a desiccant and can be used to treat carpets and upholstered
furniture for flea control. Some
evidence suggests spraying areas with about two tablespoons of salt in two cups
of water will work. Allow some time for
evaporation (e.g. overnight), then vacuum up the fleas the next morning.
Adult fleas and eggs can also be removed from dry floors or carpets by just
vacuuming.
Flea larvae
are not as easily removed from carpeting since they have claws and tend to “dig
in” and stay attached to carpet fibers.
Vacuums with more horsepower can be effective at removing these
larvae.
Be sure to
vacuum in areas where pets rest including the cushions on sofas and chairs and
under furniture. After vacuuming,
discard vacuum bags to prevent reinfestation.
Steam
cleaning is also effective at killing adult fleas and larvae. If you choose this method, follow up with
vacuuming which will help remove any eggs that may have survived the steam
treatment.
Fleas can be
removed from cats and dogs with flea combs which have very fine teeth designed
to trap fleas. After combing, fleas can
then be killed by dropping them into a dish of soapy water.
Clothes
washers and dryers will also kill fleas that are attached to pet bedding and
other fabrics.
Commercially
available shampoos and carpet cleaners will actually do a pretty good job of
killing all stages of fleas.
Some
companies have marketed insect growth regulators (e.g. methoprene) for flea
control. Methoprene induces mortality by
preventing larvae from successfully pupating and becoming adults.
Methoprene
degrades quickly in water, has shown low toxicity to birds, mammals or fish,
and is more target specific than the more widely used insecticidal sprays.
There is, however, some evidence that suggests that frogs, which feed on
mosquitoes, and perhaps other amphibians, may be negatively affected by the use
of these growth regulators.
Fleas on lawns can be controlled with nematode sprays.
Brewer's yeast and B vitamins do not repel fleas.
Neem seed powder is effective for control of flea larvae.
Sticky light traps and tapes can be used to control and repel fleas. Green
light is especially attractive as a bait for cat fleas.
FLIES
Flies comprise a
large group of mostly small insects whose members include scavengers,
predators, parasitoids, plant-eaters, and blood-feeders.
Like bees, flies are also effective pollinators.
Flies are vectors of many human diseases including roundworm, African sleeping
sickness, leishmaniasis, onchocerciasis, amoebic dysentery, trachoma, tularemia, giardiasis,
cryptosporidiosis, and anthrax.
Flies are
also quite capable of transmitting bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella, Chlamadia, and Listeria
to humans and animals.
Tiny phorid (humpbacked) flies will breed quickly wherever there is a buildup
of decaying or organic matter. To control them:
Clean out
garbage disposal systems in kitchen sinks.
Disinfect/remove
standing garbage cans of decaying organic material.
Refrigerate
fresh fruit and vegetables brought home from the store.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used inside houses to treat
cracks, wall crevices and voids, and attics to repel houseflies and deny
harborage in these areas.
Houseflies
develop in animal manure, rotting vegetation, kitchen garbage, lawn clippings,
and carrion.
Fermenting foods such as molasses, honey, maple syrup, sugar, bananas, and beer
are often attractive baits for houseflies.
Orange, lemon, camphor, clove, pine, juniper, laurel, evergreen, catnip,
eucalyptus, thyme, balsam fir, rosemary, and cedar oils are all repellent to
houseflies.
Pepper tree berries and leaves, as well as hop vines grown on houses, are also
repellent to houseflies.
Other botanical repellents such as citronella, lavender, and geranium extracts
have been used as effective deterrents.
A 2% emulsion of basil or avocado oil will repel maggots and flies.
Boric acid powder and borax can both be used as a general treatment against
flies. Borax seems to be more effective
than boric acid for control of flies that breed in manure.
Neem tree extract sprays have been used effectively against flies.
Chilean
studies have shown that some fungi (e.g. Aspergillis
spp. and Penicillium spp.) can be
good infective agents in controlling adult houseflies.
Experiments
completed in
At poultry
facilities and dairies, houseflies are becoming increasingly resistant to a
broad range of insecticides, including permethrin.
Fungus gnats are small, dark flies that are attracted to lights, and can be
found running around the soil on potted plants. Their eggs are often found in
bagged soil mixes brought home from the store. Larvae feed on roots, rotting
vegetation, and fungi in the soil.
Fungus gnats
are also capable of transmitting diseases to plants such as poinsettias and
bulbs. Plants are more vulnerable after
being injured by these gnats.
Gnats do not
develop below about 50° F or above 95° F.
To control them:
Turn over the
top three inches of soil allowing it to dry and kill the larvae.
Clean and dry
overflow saucers underneath the pot.
Remove any
rotten leaves, stems, and roots from the plant.
Do not over
water which encourages the growth of fungi.
Female
fungus gnats can be discouraged from laying eggs if the top layer of soil is
replaced with a thin (half-inch) layer of sand.
Some
evidence suggests that soaking potting soil in a soap solution will provide
some protection against fungus gnats. If
you use this method, keep in mind that soap may be toxic to some growing
plants.
Nematodes (Steinernema and Heterorhabditis spp.) and predaceous mites
can be used against fungus gnats in greenhouses. The effectiveness of nematodes can vary
depending on the type of potting soil that is used. Keep in mind that air temperature and soil
moisture content are also limiting factors for the survival of nematodes.
Some soil
bacteria (e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis) have been effective in
controlling early stage larvae of fungus gnats.
Rove beetles
have been used to control fungus gnats.
Insect growth regulators (e.g.
fenoxycarb) used in planting medium have been shown to reduce the number of
emerging fungus gnats from the soil.
Flies can be controlled by the following insect predators which you can
purchase for your individual use, and are available commercially from producers
and suppliers:
Histerid Beetle (Carcinops pumilio)
Dung Beetle (Onthophagus gazella)
Predaceous Fly (Ophyra aenescens)
Parasitic Mites (Various spp.)
Parasitoid Wasp (Various spp.)
Basil has some repellency effects for house and bluebottle flies.
Garlic extracts (oil vapors) will also control houseflies.
Bayberry bark extracts have been shown to be an effective attractant for male
fruit flies.
A study out
of
Fruit fly larvae and pupae can be controlled by ants and staphylinid (rove)
beetles.
Fruit flies are more
attracted to stationary objects that are spherical and either green or yellow
in color.
Pyrethrum, a botanical derived from Chrysanthemum flower petals is
effective against flies.
The roots of the American cornflower contain oil that is repellent and also
kills flies.
Sabadilla seeds are toxic to houseflies.
Geranial candles have been patented as housefly repellents.
Perfumes and colognes containing the chemical compound bisabolene will
also repel houseflies.
Tsetse flies (pictured above center) may carry a parasite called a trypanosome
in their blood, which can (under certain conditions) vector African sleeping
sickness (= Human African Trypanosomiasis) to humans and animals.
Tsetse flies
prefer warm, humid, shaded habitats, and are often found around vegetation
close to streams or water pools frequented by humans who are gathering water,
washing clothes, or bathing.
Tseste flies
are active biters during the day, with both sexes seeking blood meals every few
days or so. Like mosquitoes, tsetse flies are attracted to CO2 and octenol (cow breath). These flies prefer to land on
and feed on the shoulders and backs of their host animals.
Tsetse flies
are also attracted to cow urine and acetone.
Odor-baited traps using a combination of octenol, cow urine, and acetone
seemed to provide the best results.
Tsetse flies
are strongly attractive to specific shades of blue, which has resulted in the
production of visual traps which can be treated with insecticides.
Larger
populations of tsetse flies have been found in areas that have been disturbed
by human activities, such as in cultivated agrosystems supported by cattle
grazing.
In one
Ugandan study, cattle, pigs, and monitor lizards were the main hosts fed upon
by tsetse flies.
Studies from
the
In
Pyrethroids (e.g.
deltamethrin) have been used in successful aerial spraying campaigns in
Some
evidence suggests that certain fungi (e.g. Metarhizium anisopliae and
Beauveria bassiana) could provide a sufficiently high enough infection rate
to be used in adult tsetse fly control programs. In studies of islands on
Sand flies
(pictured above right), feed primarily on humans and birds, but do not object
to feeding on other animals (e.g. dogs) if given a chance. They can transmit
leishmaniasis, a nasty protozoan disease, which can be reduced with the use of
indoor permethrin-impregnated curtains. Like some mosquitoes, these flies are
attracted to CO2, but also seem to be attracted to the
skin odors of their hosts.
Some sand
flies can be attracted to traps baited with octenol, CO2, and human odors.
Most sand
flies feed at night, but a few species will bite during the day. These flies
prefer to land on and feed on the head and upper body parts of their host
animals.
Some studies
have shown that sand flies that live in and around houses prefer biting humans
within an hour or so of midnight.
Evidence
from
Leishmaniasis
often occurs in long-established communities in habitats that are associated
with human dwellings such as chicken houses and pigsties. Domesticated animals
such as dogs and horses may also provide reservoirs for additional infections.
Cutaneous
leishmaniasis, which is characterized by the presence of large skin lesions,
can be transmitted from person to person more effectively in populations that
are more concentrated due to overcrowding.
Studies from
Over 90% of
cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis occur in just six countries (
In
Studies from
Visceral
leishmaniasis (=kala-azar) is a more serious infection which can cause severe
weight loss and the enlargement of internal organs such as the spleen and
liver.
In Brazilian
studies, transmission was found to be more prevalent in homes with inadequate
sewage systems, and in those with no regular garbage collection services. In
Sand flies
are also capable of transmitting viruses to humans such as the Toscana virus which
can cause meningitis and encephalitis.
People who live in rural areas and are outdoors for extended periods are
most at risk of being bitten.
In some
countries like
Sand flies
feed mainly from dusk until dawn, are seasonally abundant, and seem to prefer
hotter, drier summer conditions over cooler, wetter winters.
Since sand
flies are also attracted to light, some evidence suggests that external light
sources adjacent to homes may increase the risks of being bitten as well.
Some studies
suggest that sand flies can become naturally infected by nematodes in the
field.
In
Like
mosquitoes, sand flies are fragile insects that require still or very limited
air flow in order to bite. They can be repelled by the air motion produced by
the circulating fan blades produced by a ceiling fan, or by a battery-operated
portable fan unit.
Since sand
flies are very small (2-3 mm), and have the ability to penetrate the mesh of
standard mosquito nets, the use of fans at night would add a level of
protection. Permethrin can be applied to
mesh nets to help deter sand flies from accessing netting. Finer mesh nets can also be purchased
commercially that will stop sand flies.
The burning
of linalool and geraniol candles can be effective sand fly repellents. Linalool is an alcohol found naturally in
many flowers and spice plants. Geraniol is also a naturally produced
plant-based alcohol which is used in perfumes and flavoring agents. Geraniol is somewhat more effective than
linalool in comparison tests.
Experiments in
Lemon and neem oils have been shown to be effective
repellents against sand flies.
Lemongrass essential oils have shown antiproliferative
activity against the developmental stages of leishmaniasis.
Indian studies have shown that extracts of certain
marine sponges (e.g. Haliclona exigua)
were effective inhibitors of the developmental stages of the organisms that
cause leishmaniasis.
A very
effective housefly control used for centuries on farms involves mixing chopped
toadstools with sweet milk in a bowl left to ferment overnight. The next
morning, this poisonous brew will attract and kill large numbers of houseflies.
Many flying insects, including houseflies, are repelled by high airflows and
prefer resting on the downwind side of structures such as building posts. Air
curtains are used at the entrances of food-processing plants to exclude flies
for this reason.
Biting horseflies, deerflies (pictured above left), and tsetse flies are
attracted to moving objects and have shown a preference for those that are
spherical and dark or black in color. They are also attracted to CO2 and octenol. Traps that utilize a suspended black ball
and octenol have yielded the greatest numbers of these flies.
Biting
flies, including horseflies, deerflies, and tsetse flies, also seem to be drawn
to phenols, which are compounds commonly found in animal urine. They use these odors to locate their hosts
from a distance.
Stableflies
prefer to land on and bite the legs of the animals they feed on. They also are most active in the late
afternoon and at dusk.
Vertically-oriented dark-colored stripes drawn on a
light-colored background can help draw stableflies away from host animals and
people.
One interesting study suggests that beach balls treated
with adhesives can also be used as decoys to lure stableflies away from people
and animals. The beach balls consisted
of blue, yellow, and red diamond-shaped panels that were very attractive to
these flies.
In certain areas, sticky traps baited with dry ice have also provided some
control for horseflies and deerflies.
Commercially available deerfly patches (e.g. Tred-not™ Deerfly Patches)
have had some success in trapping some deerflies. They consist of double-sided
adhesive strips that are affixed to the back of meshed baseball caps. They seem
to work more effectively against deerflies that are attracted to the heads
of humans and other animals rather than to other exposed areas such as the legs
and lower extremities.
Blackflies are capable of transmitting a parasitic
worm to humans through their bite causing onchocerciasis or river
blindness. Like mosquitoes, these flies
are also attracted to the CO2 exhalations from their hosts.
Blackflies feed throughout the day, but tend to be the
most active during mid-morning and in the late afternoon.
African blackflies bite mainly on the legs and lower
part of the body, whereas American species prefer to bite around the head and
upper part of the body.
Some studies
have shown that individuals with blood type O are more susceptible to
onchocerciasis infection than those belonging to non-O blood groups.
Experiments in
Catnip oil
formulations and lotions have been shown to be repellent to blackflies, and can
offer up to six hours of protection.
Some studies in
Some soil bacteria (e.g. Bacillus
thuringiensis) have been effective in controlling the larvae of blackflies
and houseflies.
One unusual observation about blackflies from my own
experience hiking in
Sticky black light traps and adhesives can be used to
control and suppress fly populations as well.
Electrocuting light traps can be purchased commercially for fly control. Keep in mind that these traps cause insects
to explode, so the effect can be unsanitary to say the least in food
preparation areas.
As is the case with most mosquitoes, carbon dioxide
(from your expired breath) will also attract most biting midges to you. Like many biting flies, these midges can also
be lured to traps containing octenol (cow breath).
Traps that combine CO2 and
octenol are more effective in attracting midges than either operating alone.
Biting midges are more active at dusk and at
night. They prefer low wind speeds and,
in fact, are mostly inactive at higher wind velocities (over 7 miles per
hour). Any rainfall will also inhibit
the activity of most biting midges.
In the Scottish Highlands, studies have shown that
midge bites can be significantly reduced with the use of topical neem-based oil
formulations.
Because midges are also attracted to lights, closing
window blinds at night will help reduce their numbers from around your home.
Black light traps and light traps with green
light-emitting diodes (LED’s) have been shown to be more effective than
incandescent ones in attracting biting midges.
The tadpole shrimp (Triops spp.) has been
used successfully to reduce populations of larval midges in temporary aquatic
habitats such as ponds.
Studies out
of
Some flies and larvae can be controlled with nematode
sprays. The biting midge is an example of a fly that has been controlled using
nematodes.
Nematodes
(e.g. Steinernema feltiae) have also been sprayed onto fresh cattle
manure to suppress housefly larvae and adults. Cattle manure seems to be a more
effective substrate for nematode survival than is poultry manure.
Garlic sprays
can be used as insecticides against houseflies.
Insect
growth regulators (e.g. novaluron) have shown some promise in the control of
housefly larvae.
Entomopathogenic
fungi such as Metarhizium anisopliae and Tolypocladium cylindrosporum
can be very effective control agents against housefly larvae. Certain oils such as linseed and soybean were
good carriers of these fungi.
Fungus-based
bait formulations have been developed to control houseflies. Flies become contaminated and die within
about ten days, but are also capable of infecting other healthy flies as well.
The use of
the fungal strain Beauveria bassiana has had some limited success in
controlling adult and larval populations of houseflies. Some evidence suggests that the use of
sawdust rather than straw bedding for calves on dairy farms enhances the
success rate even more.
Other
selected fungi, (e.g. Entomophthora muscae) have been used with good
success in limiting housefly numbers on dairy farms. Some studies indicate that lower air temperatures
increase the effectiveness of infection rates.
Higher temperatures seem to increase the survival time of diseased
flies.
Some
bacterial formulations (including e.g. Brevibacillus
laterosporus) are also toxic to housefly larvae.
The
parasitoid wasp Muscidifurax raptorellus attacks the pupal stage of
houseflies, and can be used to help reduce their populations on poultry farms.
Other pupal
parasitoid wasps (e.g. Spalangia cameroni, Nasonia vitripennis, and
Phygadeuon fumator) have also been successful against houseflies and
stableflies on swine and dairy farms.
Black
soldier flies have also been used to control housefly populations on poultry
farms.
The larvae of the black dump fly (Hydrotaea aenescens) have been used successfully
on dairy, poultry, and swine farms to control housefly populations.
LEAFHOPPERS
Leafhoppers have
piercing mouthparts, and feed on the leaves of almost all types of plants,
including trees, grasses, flowers, and many crops.
Leafhoppers can also transmit viruses and bacteria to plants which can cause
disease in some fruits and vegetables such as citrus, grapes, almonds, corn, rice,
carrots, and alfalfa.
Leafhoppers can be controlled by the following insect predators which you can
purchase for your individual use, and are available commercially from producers
and suppliers:
Lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea)
Parasitoid Wasp (Anagrus spp.)
Avoid feeding plants nitrogen which encourages leafhoppers to reproduce.
Spiders will also help to control leafhopper
populations.
Because leafhoppers are highly attracted to light,
UV-absorbing plastic has been used to entice leafhoppers away from plants.
Sticky traps, tapes, and adhesives can be used to control and repel
leafhoppers.
Leafhoppers seem to prefer
the colors yellow and orange over other colors when they respond to traps.
Soap sprays with citrus oil or pyrethrin can be effective against leafhoppers.
Oils sprayed as an emulsion in water can reduce pest numbers. Fish, petroleum,
or vegetable oils can be used.
Garlic sprays or hot pepper wax can also be effective against leafhoppers.
Some studies have shown that catnip oil is repellent
to leafhoppers.
Selected
fungi (e.g. Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae) have
also been used with some success in biocontrol programs against planthoppers.
Neem tree extract sprays have been used effectively against leafhoppers. Sprays
will be more effective when used in the cooler mornings or evenings when
leafhoppers are not as active.
LICE
Sucking lice are
small, wingless, external parasites that feed on the blood of mammals.
The head louse (pictured above left), and crab (i.e. pubic) louse do not
directly vector disease; however, the body louse can transmit typhus and
relapsing fever to humans.
Body lice
often occur when large numbers of people are found together in unsanitary
conditions.
People who
bathe and change clothes regularly seldom become infested with lice, but when
they go for long periods without bathing or changing clothes, and live in
crowded conditions, lousiness can become more prevalent.
Crab lice
are usually transmitted from person to person through physical or sexual
contact, but occasionally can be re-distributed by way of clothing.
During wartime,
soldiers, refugees, and other displaced individuals such as prisoners of war,
are also more susceptible to body lice infestations.
Body lice
usually hang onto clothing while feeding, and often remain on the clothing when
it is removed. At night, they may
migrate from one pair of clothes to another.
Since body
lice eggs are laid on clothing, treatment involves washing and drying clothes
and bedding in hot water to kill all stages including the eggs.
Because body
lice spend most of their lives on clothing, treating individuals with shampoos
or cream rinses containing insecticides such as lindane or pyrethrins is not
recommended. Indeed, published studies
have shown a link between the use of these shampoos and childhood leukemia.
Like other
insects, lice have also become increasingly resistant to the use of these
insecticides.
Some studies
indicate that certain plant essential oils such as citronella, peppermint, and
rosemary are good effective repellents against body lice.
Adult head lice may be present on the head or in the eyebrows and eyelashes.
Head lice seem to prefer to infest women and children. Some studies, in fact, have shown that girls
may be six times as likely as boys to be infested.
Frequent head scratching may be the first sign of the presence of these lice.
Suspect head lice if you notice a fine black dust (lice feces) on pillows and
shirt collars.
Head lice are most often found on school children between the ages of three and
ten years old.
Young girls
with longer hair are more susceptible to lice attacks than those with shorter
hair.
The highest risk of being infested from head lice comes from immediate family
members and playmates.
Increased
numbers of siblings in the family also increases the risk of head lice
infestations.
When children sleep or sit together, lice often have the opportunity to move
from head to head.
Overcrowding conditions at home or at school will also encourage head lice
infestations.
Head lice can be redistributed to others by the sharing of combs, brushes,
hats, and other articles of clothing including scarves and coats.
Lice can also be transferred from bedding, towels, and from upholstered
furniture, including from the backs of seats and chairs.
Personal hygiene is not a factor in being susceptible to human lice attack, but
poorer economic and living conditions have been shown to increase the
prevalence of head lice.
Eggs (nits)
are often found glued to hairs, but can be more easily removed from the scalp
with fine-toothed metallic nit combs which are available in drugstores.
Some shampoo-based treatments (e.g. Kwell®)
contain powerful insecticides such as lindane which will kill adult head lice,
but are not effective against their eggs.
Insecticidal shampoos, in general, should only be used as a last resort because
of possible toxic reactions, especially in children. Lice resistance to these
chemicals is also on the rise. Shampoos should never be used by pregnant or
nursing women, or by children under two years old.
Pyrethrum, pyrethrins, and permethrin, botanicals derived from Chrysanthemum
flowers can also be used as topical (shampoo) treatments against head lice;
however, resistance has become more widespread with their increased use.
Currently, nit combing and frequent head and hair inspections are the most
favored and effective human lice treatments.
Vaseline-based and alcoholized topical treatments, while less harmful and
irritating to the scalp, are toxic to adult lice but will not kill their eggs.
Desiccants
such as silica gel, or other drying agents, are similar in their effectiveness
to Vaseline treatments.
Other botanical products such as HairClean 1-2-3 Lice Remover® are also
only effective against adult lice.
Licatack®, an anti-louse shampoo containing grapefruit
extracts, has been shown to be a safe and effective product against adult and
larval stages of head lice.
An
Some
evidence from
Tea tree oil
(melaleuca) has shown effectiveness as a repellent against human lice
infestations.
Studies from
Insecticidal shampoos, oil-based treatments, commercial lice sprays, home
fumigation, head shaving, and the use of any fuel-based products such as
kerosene as topical rinses, are not recommended for controlling human lice
infestations.
Head lice,
like other insects, are susceptible to dehydration, and require warm, humid
conditions to flourish. Indeed, studies
have shown that adult lice can not survive away from their host for more than
about a day and a half. Keep in mind that air-conditioning lowers temperature
and humidity, and may discourage lice from leaving their host, reducing their
ability to disperse and infest others.
To reduce you or your child's exposure to lice:
Examine your child's
head weekly using a comb on dry or lightly misted hair.
Use a
magnifying glass and an intense light to help in seeing nits.
Check favored
spots like the back of the neck and behind the ears.
If you find
lice or nits, coat the hair with any salad oil to prevent tangles.
Comb out nits
and lice with a special metal lice comb.
Comb weekly
until you can no longer find any nits or lice.
Encourage
your child not to share combs, brushes, etc. with others.
Store
infested clothing separately to avoid redistribution.
Wash sheets
and pillowcases weekly in hot water to remove lice.
The booklouse (pictured above right), is a small, often wingless, chewing
insect that feeds on books, flour, sugar, milk powder, cereals, grains, molds,
and other materials. One of their
favorite foods is yellow millet.
The
booklouse is not actually parasitic, and is not even a louse. It belongs to a less well known order of
insects called psocids. I’ve included
them in the LICE group only because they are commonly
referred to as “booklice”.
Booklice
favor warm and damp areas of homes and buildings. They are most abundant in
bathrooms and kitchens, and populations indoors tend to peak during the summer
months.
Studies
suggest that optimum development and growth rates for booklice occurs at
temperatures of 90° and a relative humidity of 63%.
Some
evidence suggests that disinfestations of booklice can occur with high
temperatures in the range of 113 – 131 ° F.
To discourage infestations of booklice, keep structures and homes under 50%
humidity to minimize problems with these insects.
MEALYBUGS
The name mealybug
comes from the mealy or waxy secretions that cover the bodies of these insects.
Mealybugs have piercing mouthparts, and are similar to scale insects but are
more mobile.
Mealybugs
feed on a wide variety of plants including pineapple, bananas, coffee, cotton,
and Hibiscus.
Mealybugs can also transmit viruses such as grapevine
leafroll to some crop plants such as grapes which can cause disease.
Mealybugs can be found feeding on almost any part of a plant and are often
found in greenhouses.
Certain ants have a tendency to protect mealybugs from their natural enemies
due to their desire to "milk" them of sweet secretions which nourish
colony members. To reduce ant numbers, you might consider using a bait station
in these circumstances. For more information about these baits, see the section
under ANTS.
Indeed, the
management of ant populations holds some promise for controlling mealybug
populations.
Mealybugs can be controlled by the following insect predators which you can
purchase for your individual use, and are available commercially from producers
and suppliers:
Lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea)
Predatory Lady Beetle (Ladybug)(Diomus austrinus)
Mealybug Destroyer Beetle (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri)
Wasp Parasitoids (Various spp.)
Avoid feeding plants nitrogen fertilizer which encourages plant growth and
mealybugs to reproduce.
Diatomaceous earth can be used in gardens to control
mealybugs.
Neem tree extract sprays can be effective against mealybugs and other
greenhouse pests.
Use fish, petroleum, or vegetable oils to repel mealybugs.
High-pressure water sprays can be used to remove
mealybugs from plants.
Refrigerating plants for a few days can also help
reduce mealybug populations.
Soap sprays with citrus oil have also been used successfully to control
mealybugs. Indeed, limonene, which is a
component of citrus peel oil, can actually dissolve away the waxy secretions
these insects produce to protect themselves.
Hot water immersion treatments have been used
successfully to completely disinfect some fruits such as limes from mealybugs
without significantly altering the quality of the fruit.
Brazilian studies have shown that entomopathogenic
nematodes (e.g. Heterorhabditis sp.)
were about 70% effective in controlling mealybugs in greenhouses.
Greenhouse experiments have shown that soil growth
mediums made from food waste (vermicomposts) were effective in reducing pest
outbreaks of mealybugs. Plants were less
attractive to mealybugs and reduced their reproductive rates as well.
MITES
Mites comprise a
large and diverse group of mostly small arachnids whose members include
scavengers, predators, parasites, and plant-eaters.
Harvest mites (i.e. chiggers or redbugs) are external parasites of animals, and
are able to transmit a form of typhus to humans.
Clove oil
and tea tree oils can be used as topical repellents against chiggers.
Some mites
such as the straw itch mite (Pyemotes tritici), the furniture beetle
mite (Pyemotes
ventricosus), and the red mite (Dermanyssus
gallinae) have been associated with cases of dermatitis in humans.
The brown-legged mite (Aleuroglyphus ovatus) may also be associated with
contact allergies among some grain industry workers.
The dust
mite (pictured above left) feeds mainly on human skin fragments and can be
found in abundance in mattresses, pillows, on carpets, in corners of rooms, on
clothing, bedding, in the floor space under the bed, in upholstered furniture,
and even in a child's stuffed animals.
Dust mites
rely on mold or fungi to make skin fragments soft and moist enough to consume.
In turn, the fungi need a warm, humid environment to prosper.
Dust mites
have been shown to contribute to the increased severity of symptoms among
asthma sufferers and others with respiratory problems due to the presence of
their cast skins and feces which can be allergens.
The primary dust mite breeding area is the bed.
Dust mites tend to congregate in areas where humidity is greatest. As indoor air gets moister, dust mite
survival and populations increase.
Dust mites
will thrive best at an average temperature of 82° and 80% humidity. The density
of dust mites is much greater in tropical environments than in temperate ones.
In Malaysian
studies, more than 10,000 mites were found in as little as one gram of dust
from one carpet sample.
In homes and
buildings that use central air-conditioning systems year round, dust mite
levels can be kept down to a minimum.
Dust mite numbers are highest during the summer months.
Some studies
suggest that dust mites are less likely to survive in beds that are
unmade. Exposure to air tends to
dehydrate mites; warmth and moisture tends to be trapped in smoothed over
sheets and coverings, which may help dust mites to thrive.
Steam cleaning carpets and mattresses can be very helpful in eliminating dust
mites.
One very
effective method to remove live mites from bedding, carpets, soft furniture,
pillows, etc. is to just leave them out in the hot sun for several hours, then
beat and brush them to remove the dust containing the dead mites.
Dust mites
can be removed from beds and other surfaces with adhesive lint rollers which
can be purchased commercially.
Silica gel and diatomaceous
earth can be applied to carpets to repel dust mites and deny harborage in these
areas.
For asthma sufferers, an electrostatic air filter can be used to remove
airborne dust mite particles and allergens.
Borates in solution have shown some promise in reducing dust mite populations
in carpets.
Permethrin-impregnated
mattress liners have been used to successfully reduce dust mite populations in
the beds of some homeowners for more than two years without any apparent side
effects.
To reduce your exposure to dust mites:
Keep home
humidity below 70% - the level at which dust mites thrive.
Use
mite-proof box spring, mattress, and pillow covers.
Try pillows
with washable polyester stuffing.
Use a water
vacuum once a week for best results.
Vacuum
mattresses and any padded furniture thoroughly.
Be sure to
vacuum under beds and under any padded furniture as well.
Replace shag
carpeting with linoleum or wooden floors.
Replace
upholstered furniture with wood, vinyl, or leather-based items.
Be sure to
dust furniture before you vacuum.
Wash bed
frames, sheets, and pillowcases in hot soapy water to kill mites.
Heat blankets
in a clothes dryer to kill mites.
Remove mites
from any furred or feathered pets.
Tea tree oil (melaleuca) and tannic acid have also been used for house dust
mite control.
Studies from
The use of
commercially available dust mite carpet sprays and powders is not recommended
due to possible allergic side effects to humans and pets.
Chiggers are
the larval stage of harvest mites and are external parasites of humans and
other animals. They crawl over plants
and wait for a passing host to attach to (much like ticks). They may remain on the host for a few days
feeding on skin debris before dropping off.
Chiggers are
very small and are seldom noticed. They
tend to prefer feeding in areas where clothing is tight on the skin. This can include the crotch area, waistline,
and armpits. Ankles protected by
athletic socks are a favorite place. To
avoid chiggers, spray clothing with a good repellent such as Deet® or
permethrin.
The spider mite (pictured above right) can be controlled by the following
insect predators which you can purchase for your individual use, and are
available commercially from producers and suppliers:
Convergent Lady Beetle (Ladybug)(Hippodamia convergens)
Lacewing (Chrysoperla spp.)
Predatory Lady Beetle (Stethoris punctillum)
Predatory Anthocorid (Pirate) Bugs (Orius spp.)
Predatory and Parasitic Mites (Various spp.)
Mite Midge (Feltiella acarisuga)
Suspect spider mites if you notice webby deposits and tiny holes on the under
surfaces of leaves. Infestations may
cause leaves to yellow and die.
Spider mites prefer hot and dry conditions. Under watering of plants can encourage
attack. To prevent infestations of spider mites, mist plants frequently to keep
them cool, and sponge wipe the underside of leaves to further reduce their
numbers.
Because of
their tendency to disperse, the use of predatory mites to control spider mites
may be more effective under greenhouse conditions than in the garden. This is
not always the case, however, as some predaceous mites perform poorly in
greenhouses.
Many species
of spider mites have developed resistance to the persistent use of acaricides.
To remove light
infestations of spider mites, use a high-pressure sprayer for a knock-off
effect. To increase the effectiveness,
you can also add an insecticidal soap to the water.
For severe
infestations, use the sprayer method to reduce heavy populations of mites, and
then use biological controls such as predatory mites to further reduce
numbers. Once established, biological
controls may reproduce and provide ongoing protection against mites as long as
pesticides are not applied which could reduce their survival.
Keep in mind
that mild infestations can actually be triggered by the use of insecticides due
to the exposure and death of natural enemies.
A 2%
emulsion of basil or avocado oil can be used to repel spider mites. Keep in mind that basil oil may also have a
toxic effect on predaceous mites that would normally contribute to the
mortality of spider mites.
Fish, petroleum, or vegetable oils can also be used to deter plant-feeding
mites.
An example
of a vegetable oil that is toxic to spider mites is Natur’l oil, which is
organically grown emulsified soybean oil.
Garlic sprays or hot pepper wax offer protection against spider mites.
Soap sprays with citrus oil or pyrethrin are also effective against
plant-feeding mites.
Neem tree extract sprays have also been used successfully to control
plant-feeding mites.
Cinnamon oil (e.g. Cinnacure®) sprays have shown some success in
controlling spider mite populations.
Some
evidence suggests that vapors from selected plant essential oils such as
caraway, cumin, anise, fennel, oregano, lemon eucalyptus, pennyroyal,
peppermint, spearmint, and tansy, are toxic to spider mites.
In Hungarian
experiments, sweet marjoram and rosemary plant essential oils were also able to
increase mortality in spider mites.
Some British
and Chinese studies have indicated that selected entomopathogenic fungi (e.g. Metarhizium
anisopliae and Beauveria
bassiana) have
potential as biopesticides against spider mites under controlled conditions.
Greenhouse experiments
have shown that soil growth mediums made from food waste (vermicomposts) were
effective in reducing pest outbreaks of spider mites. Plants were less attractive to mites and
reduced their reproductive rates as well.
Use a cotton swab soaked in tea tree oil (melaleuca) to remove light
infestations of mites from cats and dogs.
Diatomaceous earth and silica gel can both be used
safely to disinfest storage bins from flour and grain mites.
Garlic products (especially garlic oil) have been used
to protect wheat against mold and grain mites.
Studies out of
The
ectoparasitic bee mite (i.e. Varroa jacobsoni = Varroa destructor),
is considered the major pest of honeybee colonies around the world. It attaches
itself externally to the bee’s abdomen, or behind the bee’s head, and feeds on
its blood. They often infest larval brood chambers, and can quickly annihilate
entire colonies. In warmer climates, where winters do not slow them down,
colonies can be destroyed within months.
Varroa mites also have been found to vector
viruses to honeybees (e.g. deformed wing virus), which causes bee mortality
during pupation.
Honeybee
tracheal mites (Acarapis woodi), live inside the tracheae and air sacs
of adult bees, and can be responsible for heavy bee colony mortalities. In
Essential oils of citrus, thyme, clove, marjoram, peppermint, savory, rosemary,
lavender, laurel, bay, eucalyptus, citronella, sage, camphor, paraffin, rape,
and origanum, have all shown varying degrees of success in controlling the
parasitic bee mite and/or the tracheal mite that ravage honeybee colonies. Of
these botanicals, clove oil may be the most promising miticide.
Thymol (thyme oil) has been found to be less effective under subtropical
conditions and has shown some toxicity to honeybees.
Menthol is registered as a fumigant for use in honeybee colonies to control bee
and tracheal mites, but has also shown an undesirable high toxicity to bees
unless used exactly as recommended. The timing of treatments is important when
using menthol. Menthol crystals are also dependent on air temperatures for
their effectiveness.
Formic acid, produced by ants, and found in many plants, has shown
effectiveness in controlling bee and tracheal mites, and can be used to treat
mite-infested brood if the brood combs are removed from the hive for treatment.
Formic acid
treatments are labor intensive, require multiple applications, are somewhat
dependent on temperature and dose for their effectiveness, and may pose a
safety threat to applicators and beekeepers.
In addition, residues can suppress colony development, cause mortality
in honeybee larvae, and may contaminate bee products such as honey.
NOD Apiary
Products Ltd, a Canadian firm, sells Mite-Away™, a product that uses
formic acid pads to remove parasitic and tracheal mites from infested
colonies. It is approximately 95%
effective in eliminating them.
Some studies
suggest the use of tobacco smoke, or smoke from other plants, in lightly
infested hives, can cause Varroa mites to dislodge from their bee hosts
and fall to the bottom of the hive.
Sticky boards can then be placed on the hive bottom to trap these
mites. Using a fine mesh screen to
separate mites from reattaching to bees may help reduce mite populations even
more.
Smoke from
other burned products such as coffee beans, corncobs, creosote, eucalyptus,
orange peel, pecan leaves, pine needles, and mesquite have also been tested
against tracheal mites. From this group,
creosote was the most effective, offering low, but significant mortality
against adult mites. Smoke did not seem
to be effective against immature mite stages.
Adult bees seemed to experience an anesthetic reaction to the smoke, but
did recover.
Neem extracts have also been used to control bee and
tracheal mites. Neem oil (10%) can be applied directly to bees, or it can be
added to sugar and given as oral bait. It is similar in effectiveness to formic
acid. At higher doses, neem oil can cause the death of the queen.
Varroa mites can be managed with the use of pyrethroids;
however, some mites have developed resistance to these acaricides (e.g.
fluvalinate in products such as Apistan®), and residues have
appeared in honey and beeswax products.
Pesticides
including DDT, acaricides, fungicides, and antibiotics have all been found in
honey and bee products worldwide.
Italian
studies have shown that beeswax can be contaminated with acaracide residues
despite the use of “organic” beekeeping practices.
Some
research shows that heating honeybees to a temperature of 104 ° F. was effective in eliminating Varroa
mites without harming the adult bees.
Some studies
indicate that Varroa mites can be controlled by the use of
entomopathogenic fungi such as Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium spp. As with some other control options, some bee
sensitivity and mortality may result from their use, however. Treatments with Beauveria alone do not seem to impact the health of
the colony.
In some
experiments, applications of the fungi Hirsutella thompsonii or Metarhizium
anisopliae caused significant mortality of Varroa mites, and was
found to be harmless to honeybee workers, brood, and queens at the
concentrations used to control the mites.
Bee mite traps (e.g. Phero Tech) to control Varroa jacobsoni are
available commercially.
Some
evidence from
Finnish experiments
have shown that dusting honeybees with powdered sugar had a significant
knockdown effect on Varroa mites after only about 18 hours of treatment.
Some
parasitic bee mites (i.e. Tropilaelaps
clareae) can be controlled with the application of garlic extract sprays.
MOSQUITOES
Mosquitoes are
blood-feeding insects that are vectors of many human diseases including
malaria, dengue, yellow fever, filariasis,
Mosquitoes have been indirectly responsible for more human deaths than any
other creature that has ever lived on this planet. About 40% of the world’s population is at
risk of malaria alone.
To lessen your exposure to mosquitoes:
Dispose of
old tires.
Clear clogged
streams and roof gutters so they can run freely.
Empty any
standing containers of water including pet watering bowls.
Drain saucers
under potted plants.
Plug or drain
tree holes so they won't hold water.
Use mosquito
fish, goldfish, or guppies in watering troughs, water gardens or fishponds.
Of all the prevention
methods that can be used to protect yourself and others from being bitten by
mosquitoes, the most effective is to try to eliminate any sources of standing
water in the area around where you live.
Case in
point, in a single puddle in the basement of an apartment building in
Mosquitoes
cannot breed in swimming pools or jacuzzis that are kept clean and chlorinated.
After Hurricane Katrina advanced through
To further
reduce exposure to mosquitoes, consider using fans or air-conditioning to cool
your home (rather than leaving doors and windows open to the outside), and
install mesh screens in windows and other entry points to help minimize their
access.
Especially
in areas where malaria is present, resist any temptation to sleep outdoors at
night.
Adult
mosquitoes are very fragile insects that require still or very limited air flow
in order to bite. They can be easily repelled by the air motion produced by the
circulating fan blades produced by a ceiling fan, or by a battery-operated
portable fan unit.
Keep in mind
that birdbaths, which may add a pleasing, natural element to your backyard,
will also provide an almost ideal environment for the growth of mosquito
larvae.
If you live
near a cemetery, consider also that mosquitoes don’t mind breeding in
water-filled urns containing flowers or in any other open containers they might
find there.
Mosquitoes
are very capable of breeding in septic tanks.
Be sure to cover vent pipes, exposed tanks, and manhole covers with
appropriate materials such as window screening (for pipes), and plastic (for
tanks and manholes). Newer septic
systems may already have protective plastic risers installed. In one Puerto Rican town, large numbers of Aedes mosquitoes found in septic tanks
contributed to an island-wide dengue epidemic.
Although ultrasound is not effective in repelling mosquitoes, sound traps have
been used to attract Aedes mosquitoes
(450 Hz range).
Studies
conducted in Cuba showed that ultrasonic devices were not only useless in repelling
mosquitoes, but were also potentially harmful to humans due to the high
intensity frequencies emitted by them.
Aedes mosquitoes can transmit dengue,
Culex mosquitoes can transmit encephalitis, filariasis, and
Anopheles mosquitoes can transmit filariasis, and are the primary
transmitters of malaria. They are also more active at night.
Bear in mind that mosquitoes that transmit diseases to humans do not all
respond the same way to deterrents or controls.
Carbon dioxide (from your expired breath) will attract most mosquitoes and
other biting flies up to a range of about 50 feet.
Some
preliminary evidence from
Aedes and Anopheles mosquitoes are more attracted to skin odors
than to CO2.
Culex mosquitoes, on the other hand, are more
attracted to CO2 than to skin odors.
Mosquitoes that are attracted to human skin odors are less attractive to body
parts that have been recently washed with soap. Soap helps reduce the amount of
bacteria, sweat, lactic acid, ammonia, and other odors that are normally
present on the skin surface which are attractive to these mosquitoes.
Anopheles mosquitoes show a preference for night
or predawn feeding, for feeding indoors, and for biting the ankles and feet of
humans. They are very attracted to foot, sweat, and other skin odors. They are
also attracted to the odor from Limburger cheese. Nylon stockings worn by human
volunteers were also found to be highly attractive to these mosquitoes.
Studies have
shown interesting behavioral variations among different species of Anopheles mosquitoes, with some (e.g. Anopheles gambiae) preferring to bite
the feet of seated humans, and some (e.g. Anopheles
arabiensis) preferring to bite the feet of motionless or sleeping
humans. Biting activity is also higher if your feet are closer to the ground
than if they are elevated.
Malaria
mosquitoes are more attractive to adults than to children. They also seem to be fonder of men than
women. In fact, in some areas, malaria
is restricted to male adults, and is nearly non-existent in children and female
adults. Especially indoors, these mosquitoes are more attracted to skin odors
than to expired breath.
For malaria
mosquitoes, research seems to indicate that the main attraction to humans seems
to come from differences in the combination of body odor, heat, and moisture
emanating from a given individual.
Indeed, one
interesting study out of
Some
Australian studies have found that wearing light-colored clothing can decrease
your risk of being bitten by mosquitoes there.
There is
some evidence to suggest that many Anopheles
mosquitoes enter homes through open eaves of roofs rather than through doors or
windows.
Investigations
in western
In
Poorly
constructed housing may also allow easier access for mosquitoes who are seeking
humans.
In African
villages, the application of Deet® to the ankles and feet of villagers
significantly reduced the biting rates of malaria mosquitoes.
Studies in
An investigative
study out of
A Swiss
study also seemed to show that patients with an HIV infection were more
attractive to biting mosquitoes.
Some studies
have shown that individuals with blood type O are more likely to be infected,
but are less likely to develop severe forms of malaria infection than those
belonging to non-O blood groups.
Some
evidence from the
Larger
populations of Anopheles mosquitoes have been found in areas that have
been disturbed by human activities.
Irrigation
projects, for example, can provide additional habitats for larval mosquitoes to
develop, and have been associated with an increase in the transmission of
malaria and filariasis. Indeed, malaria
has been nearly eradicated in some provinces in
In
Much
evidence suggests that deforestation or the replacement of natural landscapes
with agricultural crops contributes to an increase in disease transmission due
to elevated temperatures and humidities in these areas.
Brazilian
studies also suggest that malaria transmission was strongly associated with
land clearing and farming.
Keep in mind
that even relatively small climate changes can have dramatic effects on the
intensity of malarial transmission.
Kenyan
studies seem to indicate that the use of fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate
actually increased larval mosquito populations in rice fields. It seems this particular fertilizer reduced
the turbidity of the water, making it more attractive to ovipositing female
mosquitoes. Areas that were poorly
drained (e.g. ditches, puddles, vehicle tracks) also contributed to rising
numbers of malaria mosquitoes in
In rural
areas, mosquito abundance and malaria transmission is higher near waterlogged
fields and communal village drinking-water tanks, which are often free of
predators that would consume mosquito larvae.
Studies in
Ethiopian
studies have shown a number of malaria risk factors for children. These included using irrigated land, having a
home with an earthen roof, domesticated animals living in the home, and open
eaves.
Anopheles mosquitoes are best repelled by neem
oils; Culex and Aedes mosquitoes respond best to Deet®.
Like Anopheles
mosquitoes, Aedes mosquitoes are highly attracted to sweat and other
human skin secretions. When human skin
residues were isolated in a test tube, it took only about 30 seconds for 90% of
these mosquitoes to respond to it.
Aedes mosquitoes cannot survive very long
periods under low humidity conditions.
Aedes mosquitoes seem to focus their biting
efforts during times that humans show increased activity such as during
breakfast, lunch, and dinner.
In contrast
to Anopheles mosquitoes, Aedes mosquitoes prefer biting their
hosts outside of dwellings.
Some studies
with Aedes mosquitoes have shown that females prefer to lay their eggs
in water that is contaminated with bacteria (e.g. waste or lagoon water). Oviposition decreased as water salinity
increased, with almost no egg-laying occurring when salt concentrations were
above 12%.
Brazilian
studies indicate that mosquitoes that transmit yellow fever have a
predisposition for men who are over 40 years of age. Other studies from
Brazilian
studies have shown that dengue epidemics in the tropics are more prevalent
during the rainy season, and are associated with higher rainfall and higher
relative humidities.
Mosquito bed
nets and curtains treated with pyrethroids (e.g. deltamethrin) have shown some
success in repelling malaria-vectoring mosquitoes. Bed nets have not
been shown to increase their mortality. Some mosquitoes have also become
increasingly resistant to the continued use of these repellents. Bed nets that are not treated with
insecticides also provide protection against malaria mosquitoes, but are not as
effective as treated nets.
Keep in mind
that torn mosquito nets are likely to
trap mosquitoes that enter allowing most of them to bite the sleeper and
potentially transmit disease.
In Afghan
refugee camps, canvas tents and plastic tarpaulins that were impregnated with
pyrethroids also provided residual protection against malaria mosquitoes.
A study out
of the Ivory Coast seemed to indicate that mosquito bed nets treated with Deet®
showed good (>70%) success in repelling and
killing malaria mosquitoes.
A 2% neem oil mixture or cream on exposed skin can
provide up to twelve hours of protection against Anopheles
mosquitoes. Neem can also offer extended
protection against Aedes and Culex mosquitoes as well. Statistically, however, neem is less
effective against Aedes mosquitoes.
Products containing neem are available commercially to
the public.
Neem oil in kerosene lamps has been tested in
In addition to topical and repellent relief provided
by neem products, neem extracts have also shown in some studies an internal
ability to reduce the development of Plasmodium
parasites which are the causal agents of malaria.
Iranian studies have provided evidence that licorice
extracts have also shown antiplasmodial activity against malaria.
In East and
In
In
Leaf and root-bark extracts
of the African herb, Veronia amygdalina (=Tree veronia or Bitter leaf)
have shown anti-malarial activity in laboratory experiments.
In separate studies, lantana flower extracts (Lantana
camara) were also repellent to Aedes mosquitoes.
When compared to Deet® and mosquito coils
(which contain pyrethrins), the use of fresh or burning H. suaveolins,
or using the smoke from the bark of D. oliveri, the plant odors provided
at least as much repellency protection as the coils, but somewhat less than the
Deet®.
Mosquito coils may reduce the amount of biting from
mosquitoes and other biting flies, but keep in mind that burning coils can
release toxic fumes such as formaldehyde which can be potentially dangerous to
humans if inhaled. Infants, children,
the elderly, and the sick are most at risk.
The mosquito repellent, Mosiguard™ is available
commercially in Europe,
Iranian studies have also shown that lemon essential
oil can be an effective repellent against malaria mosquitoes.
Other compounds extracted from eucalyptus have been
found to be very effective against both Aedes and Anopheles
mosquitoes when compared to Deet®.
Another
mosquito repellent which goes under the trade name, Bio-Skincare™ has a
similar repellent effect to malaria mosquitoes as Mosiguard™. It contains the oils of several herbs
including coconut, jojoba, and rapeseed, but is not yet widely available
commercially. It is currently marketed
in
If you apply Deet® to your skin as a repellent,
be sure to use it sparingly at concentrations under 40%, and keep in mind
that some sensitive individuals may react allergically to these chemicals. For
children, use only very low concentrations (under 10%). Be aware that some children have experienced
seizures from its application.
Deet® can be
used on clothes instead of on skin to lessen potential toxic side effects and
reactions to this chemical. Cotton
clothes can be repellent to mosquitoes for up to several weeks.
Never ever apply Deet® to
exposed broken skin. I did this accidentally once while I was
hiking in the Belizean rainforest, and started feeling very lightheaded because
the chemical got into my bloodstream through a scratch and affected my nervous
system. The effect was temporary (about
two hours), but I learned a valuable lesson.
3M
Corporation markets a product called 3M Ultrathon® which is a very
effective, though expensive, timed-release mosquito repellent used by the
Deet® can
also be used as a larvicide against mosquitoes when added to artificial
containers such as flower vases and other potential breeding sites.
A relatively
new topical insect repellent that has been available in Europe and Australia
since 1998 is called Bayrepel®. Other commonly used
names for this product include picaridin, Autan Repel®, and KBR 3023.
Bayrepel® was registered as a “reduced-risk”
chemical by the EPA in 2000, but is not yet currently available commercially in
the
Bayrepel® has been field tested and is
effective against a wide range of insects and arthropods including mosquitoes,
midges, stableflies, houseflies, blackflies, and ticks.
In field
tests with volunteers, Bayrepel® was similar in effect to Deet®, but less
irritating to the skin. At a formulation
of 20%, Bayrepel® offered similar protection (from 7 – 12 hours
of biting relief) to 3M Ultrathon® (33-35% Deet®).
Studies done
in Burkina Faso showed that Bayrepel® actually
outperformed Deet® in
comparison tests against malaria mosquitoes.
Mosquitoes
that feed at night are more active during a full moon, and are attracted to
light traps. Some studies have shown
that Anopheles and Aedes mosquitoes prefer white lights,
while Culex seems to like the color
blue the most.
More mosquitoes can be caught with combination light, CO2, and octenol (cow breath) traps.
Some
evidence from India suggests that mosquitoes were most attracted to the white
color of a clear glass bulb, and were least attracted to bulbs that emit red
and green lights.
Dry ice can be used as a good source of CO2
to attract mosquitoes.
The Sears Skeeter Eater® is an example of an improved zap trap which
uses octenol cartridges to attract mosquitoes.
Large
numbers of mosquitoes can be attracted to traps that utilize technologies that
actually produce attractants such as CO2,
water vapor, octenol, and heat.
Most
mosquito traps generate CO2
from either propane or from a CO2 gas
cylinder. The advantage of propane is
that it also simultaneously produces heat and moisture, which helps to attract
even more mosquitoes.
American
Biophysics Corp. manufactures the Mosquito Magnet®, which is an example
of an advanced propane-powered mosquito trap that uses combinations of CO2, water vapor, octenol, and heat to lure mosquitoes. It was found to be very effective compared
with other traps. So effective, in fact,
that it is used by some countries (e.g.
Be sure to
arrange traps at least thirty feet away from areas where people get together;
if traps are placed too close to dwellings, for example, mosquitoes will be able
to locate you more effectively and you will not be happy.
If you
decide to use traps, be sure to follow label instructions and the
manufacturers’ recommendations. Propane
is a flammable gas and should be used with caution; CO2 is not combustible, but cylinders can explode in the
presence of high heat or a fire.
BioEcotech
is a Malaysian company that manufactures an effective mosquito repelling lamp (Ecolight™) that can be used indoors to
keep mosquitoes away. A yellow pigment that coats the bulb filters out the UV
light that attracts mosquitoes.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used inside houses to treat
cracks, wall crevices, wall voids, and attics to deter mosquitoes and deny
harborage in these areas.
Smear lemongrass, clove oil, avocado oil, oil of turmeric, or basil oil on skin
to repel mosquitoes.
The burning
of linalool and geraniol candles can be effective mosquito repellents. Linalool is an alcohol found naturally in
many flowers and spice plants. Geraniol is also a naturally produced
plant-based alcohol which is used in perfumes and flavoring agents.
Mixing 4% citronella oil into 96% Vaseline will give you about three hours of
protection.
Citrus-based sprays and garlic extracts have been used successfully to control
mosquitoes.
Myrrh burned as incense will repel mosquitoes.
Plant sweet, holy, or lemon basil plants indoors to keep mosquitoes away.
Botanical insect repellents such as citronella, cedar wood and lavender
extracts are effective deterrents.
Oils of birch, bluestem grass, cinnamon, fennel, geranium, thyme, pine, rosemary,
morning glory, bitter melon, spearmint, mugwort, and yarrow are also potent
mosquito repellents.
Indian
studies indicate that both pine and citronella oils can provide about nine
hours of protection against both Anopheles
and Culex mosquitoes.
Alcoholized
extracts of wild mint may provide up to five hours of protection against some
species of mosquitoes.
Both salicylic acid (aspirin's main ingredient) and even Ben Gay® have
been used as deterrents.
Perfumes and
colognes containing bisabolene will repel mosquitoes.
Citronella
candles are more effective than citronella incense in reducing your exposure to
mosquitoes.
Citronella-based
soaps such as Skeeter Cheater® are also available commercially, and
offer several hours of repellent protection against mosquitoes.
Catnip oil
has been shown to be repellent, irritant, and toxic to adult Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex
mosquitoes.
Pure catnip
oil is too strong to be used as a topical agent. It is actually much more potent than Deet so
less can be used, but a safe formulation for a person has not yet been
determined. In the meantime, it can be
applied to clothing to avoid possible unpleasant side effects. It may provide up to eight hours of relief
against mosquitoes.
Some
evidence out of
Indeed, a
celery-based topical product (G10) has shown excellent protective ability
(compared to Deet®) against a wide variety of adult mosquitoes including Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex.
This product, however, is not yet available commercially.
Many flying
insects, including mosquitoes, are repelled by high airflows. Mosquitoes are
very fragile insects, so the use of fans and blowers will discourage them from
landing on you (typical vent-style air conditioning alone will not protect you
unless it is high force). I personally
use a small battery-powered fan to sleep safely at night when I spend time in
rainforests, and this has proven to be a very effective preventative especially
against night-feeding malaria mosquitoes.
There is some
anecdotal evidence to suggest that consuming large doses of vitamin B-1
(thiamine) can somehow repel mosquitoes by causing perspiration to smell
differently than usual (i.e. like yeast).
This could possibly work for some people some of the time, but is not
supported by any scientific studies.
Interestingly,
there is also some suggestive research from
Peel oil extracts of orange and lemon will control mosquito larvae.
Other plant
essential oils derived from turpentine, thyme, caraway, chili pepper, celery,
cinnamon, anise, basil, cashew nut, fennel, nutmeg, fenugreek, mullilam,
zedoary, sandalwood, gotu kola, sugar apple, wood apple, Croton spp.,
and eucalyptus have all been used to eliminate mosquito larvae.
Some
laboratory experiments have shown that the fruit of paprika (Capsicum annuum) is toxic to the egg,
larval, and pupal stages of the malaria mosquito.
Garlic, ginger, black pepper, neem, bitter
melon, Hibiscus root, and Ginkgo bilboa extracts have also been
used to control mosquito larvae.
Water
treated with .15% borax is also larvicidal to mosquitoes.
Extracts of
avocado and watermelon have been shown to be toxic to Anopheles mosquito larvae.
Guppies have been used successfully to control the larvae of some Culex
species that breed in sewage pits where mosquito fish may not survive. They have also been used to stop mosquito
breeding in polluted drains in some cities in
In
Korean
studies have shown that plant extracts of Kigelia
pinnata and Ruta
chalapensis were larvicidal to Aedes and Culex
mosquitoes.
In
The
predaceous mosquito (Toxorhynchites splendens) is used in
In
In central
In
On islands
in
In
In
The tadpole
shrimp (Triops spp.), and the mud loach (Misgurnus mizolepsis) have been used successfully to reduce
populations of larval mosquitoes in temporary aquatic habitats such as ponds.
The
microsporidium (Edhazardia aedis) a protozoan, has shown some success in
field trials against the yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti).
Studies from
Surface oils
and films are available commercially from companies (e.g. Henkel Corporations’ Agnique®)
that specialize in larval and pupal mosquito control. These surfactants are applied to the surfaces
of standing water, and kill larvae and pupae by clogging their breathing
tubes. They can also cause ovipositing
female adults to drown because of the lower water surface tension. They are
made from plant oils, and are much less likely to be toxic to other organisms
than other oils such as kerosene.
Surface
films are biodegradable, and have been showed to be relatively safe to
non-target invertebrates such as shrimp and snails, and to vertebrates
including fish and humans. They can be
used safely for mosquito control in a variety of habitats including marshes,
pastures, ditches, sewers, waste ponds, and tree holes.
Surface film
controls can also be combined with other larvicides (e.g. Bactimos®) for
faster control of mosquito larvae.
Some
companies (e.g. WellMark International) have marketed
an insect growth regulator (e.g. methoprene) for control of late stage mosquito
larvae. Methoprene (e.g. Altosid) induces mortality by preventing larvae from
successfully pupating and becoming adults.
Methoprene
degrades quickly in water, has shown low toxicity to birds, mammals or fish,
and is more target specific than the more widely used insecticidal sprays.
There is, however, some evidence that suggests that frogs, which feed on
mosquitoes, and perhaps other amphibians, may be negatively affected by the use
of these growth regulators.
In
Pyriproxyfen
was also toxic against Culex and Aedes
mosquito larvae in studies done in Egypt, India, and
Other growth
regulators (i.e. diflubenzuron) have been effective in reducing populations of Anopheles and Aedes mosquito larvae.
Novaluron,
another growth regulator, is effective in controlling larval populations of
polluted-water mosquitoes in urban areas such as Culex.
Some
companies (e.g.
In
If water
storage containers are treated with this formulation, and are then covered
to restrict sunlight exposure (which
reduces efficacy of the bacteria), extended periods up to several months of
nearly 100% mortality of mosquito larvae can be achieved.
In
Bacillus
sphaericus is typically used only in freshwater systems,
whereas Bacillus thuringiensis can be applied in estuaries as well as
freshwater environments.
Studies on Culex
and Anopheles mosquitoes field populations in France, China, India,
Tunisia, Thailand, and Brazil, have, however, revealed some developing
resistance to the use of this bacterium as a control agent.
Some Indian
studies have indicated that Bacillus sphaericus is ineffective against Aedes mosquito larvae. Indian evidence also suggests that exposure
to sunlight can reduce the ability of these bacteria to reproduce successfully
which diminishes their ability to attack mosquito larvae over time.
AgraQuest
Inc. manufactures a fungus-based mosquito larvicide (Laginex®) which
offers several weeks of good control of Culex and Anopheles mosquitoes in
pools.
Selected
fungi (e.g. Metarhizium anisopliae) have been used to control mosquito
larvae when used in conidial suspensions applied to water surfaces. Some studies of adults that were infected
with this fungus on resting sites have shown that they exhibited reduced
reproductive rates (produced fewer eggs), and were also less inclined to bite.
Exposure of
adult mosquitoes (e.g. Aedes aegypti)
to selected fungi (e.g. Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana) on impregnated cloths suspended in
vegetable oil, has shown some success in increasing mortality and reducing
populations of these insects.
Fungal
sprays of Metarhizium anisopliae
in clay pots have also generated positive control results since many adult
mosquito species including Anopheles prefer pots for resting sites.
Brazilian studies have
shown that insect growth regulators (e.g. triflumuron) have shown some promise
in inhibiting the ability of adult Aedes
aegypti mosquitoes to reproduce.
SCALES
Scales are very small insects that secrete a
waxy or scale-like covering that covers their bodies.
Scales are less mobile than mealybugs, and, indeed, adults can feed in one spot
for their entire lives.
Scales injure plants by sucking the sap. Heavy encrustations can eventually
kill the host.
Scales often can be found in reduced numbers in
monoculture systems such as on Christmas tree farms or within fruit orchards.
Scale infestations often occur when pesticides are applied
for control purposes. This practice
frequently eliminates the scale insect’s natural enemies which causes scale
populations to multiply at alarming rates.
Scale insects can be controlled by the following insect predators which you can
purchase for your individual use, and are available commercially from producers
and suppliers:
Convergent Lady Beetle (Ladybug)(Hippodamia convergens)
Lacewing (Chrysoperla spp.)
Predatory Mite (Euseius spp.)
Predatory Lady Beetles (Various spp.)
Parasitoid Wasps (Various spp.)
Ladybugs that have been reared on scales (by insectaries) are less likely to
disperse in your garden than those collected in the wild.
Use fish, petroleum, or vegetable oils sprayed in an emulsion of water to
control scale infestations.
Use the pressurized spray from a garden hose to remove light infestations of
scales.
Soap sprays with citrus oil or pyrethrin have also been used to suppress
scales. Indeed, citrene,
which is a component of citrus peel oil, can actually dissolve away the waxy
secretions these insects produce to protect themselves.
Sticky traps, tapes, and adhesives can be used to control and repel scales.
Hot pepper wax has been shown to be an effective repellent against scales.
Certain ants have a tendency to protect scales from their natural enemies due
to their desire to "milk" them of sweet secretions which nourish
colony members. To reduce ant numbers, you might consider using a bait station
in these circumstances. For more information about these baits, see the section
under ANTS.
Some
evidence suggests that the use of insect growth regulators (e.g. buprofezin and pyriproxyfen) against scale insects (e.g.
the citrus red scale) may have a negative impact on its natural enemy, the
ladybird beetle. Indeed, the impact of
these regulators on non-target species has not as yet been fully determined.
SCORPIONS
Like spiders,
scorpions are efficient, general predators of insects. They are venomous, and
while they do not ordinarily attack people, they will sting quickly if
disturbed.
Scorpions are active at night, and during the day tend to hide in concealed
areas. They do not frequently enter homes due to their preference for warmer
conditions.
Scorpions become very sluggish when temperatures drop below 70° F.
Disturbances to their habitat, such as from flooding, may increase the
likelihood of their entering homes.
To reduce your exposure to scorpions:
Wear shoes at
night indoors and when walking outside your home.
Check your
shoes or slippers before putting them on.
Check your
bed before you get into it.
Shake out
clothes and towels before using them.
Wear gloves
when moving debris or working in your backyard.
Remove
woodpiles and rocks from the area around your home.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used inside houses to treat
cracks, wall crevices, wall voids, and attics to repel scorpions and deny
harborage in these areas.
Pyrethroids
(e.g. deltamethrin) can be used in combination with silica gel or diatomaceous
earth as an effective indoor repellent against scorpions.
SILVERFISH AND FIREBRATS
Silverfish (pictured
above left) are very primitive, wingless insects that feed on starchy
substances such as books, wallpaper, clothing, and curtains.
Silverfish prefer damp conditions closer to the soil such as in basements and
porches, and are less abundant in upper stories of homes.
Firebrats (pictured above right) are similar in form to silverfish, but prefer
much warmer and moister conditions.
Firebrats are often found in very hot areas near furnaces, boilers, or steam
pipes, and will not even lay eggs unless the air temperature is at least 98 ° F.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used inside houses to treat
cracks, wall crevices, wall voids, and attics to repel silverfish and
firebrats, and deny harborage in these areas.
Organic Plus Inc. (Organic Plus®) is a desiccant registered for home and
garden use for silverfish control.
Boric acid powder can also be used as a treatment against firebrats and
silverfish.
Pyrethrin can be used in combination with silica gel or diatomaceous earth as
an effective indoor repellent against both silverfish and firebrats.
Woodstream
Corporation’s Victor Poison-Free Ant & Roach Killer uses a 4% Japanese mint
essential oil blend as an effective knockdown treatment for silverfish.
SPIDERS
Spiders are good general predators of insects in
home gardens.
Most spiders, especially those that form webs, are
highly susceptible to the effects of herbicides and insecticides, and their
populations are often reduced significantly.
Even in areas that have not been sprayed, residual chemical drift can
occur which can kill large numbers of beneficial insect-consuming spiders.
Pyrethroids, which are naturally occurring botanical
insecticides made from chrysanthemums, are also harmful to spider populations.
To maximize the benefits of insect-eating spiders in
your garden, do not use any pesticides.
When gardens have more spiders, there are fewer pests
and less plant damage.
Studies have shown that the mere presence of spider
silk and feces on plants can inhibit feeding in some insects, even if spiders
do not consume them directly.
Mixed vegetable gardens have larger spider populations.
Flowers do not affect the number of spiders.
Intercropping and using mulches will increase the number of soil dwelling
spiders.
All spiders are naturally venomous, the vast majority
of them being harmless to people. There
are some notable exceptions, however.
Unless you are a trained scientist (or in the company of one) who can
identify which is which, you should always exercise caution around them, and
this definitely includes not handling them.
There have been isolated and very rare reports of
spiders (e.g. the green lynx) that have the ability to spit venom from their
fangs as a defensive reaction against predators (or humans), so this should
give you a clue to be on your guard.
The female black widow spider (pictured above left)
prefers to build her web in dark, dry, protected areas close to the
ground. The webs are used to trap their
prey. They are venomous, but are not
aggressive towards humans or pets, preferring to remain still or retreating
when provoked. The males do not bite.
For black widows, one of their favorite foods is fire
ants.
Because black widows prefer to live around humans in
homes and buildings, they sometimes hide in clothing, shoes, or under other
objects. A bite usually occurs when
clothing is applied and the spider is pressed against the skin surface.
Be sure to shake out clothing and shoes before wearing
if left on the floor overnight.
Although bites are seldom fatal, seek medical
attention if you believe this spider has bitten you. Infants, children, the elderly, and the sick
are most at risk.
To reduce your exposure to black widows:
Educate your
children about black widows.
Encourage
children to leave spiders alone, and not to tease or provoke them.
Avoid putting fingers into dark, inaccessible areas before
checking for spiders.
Wear gloves
when working around woodpiles or other items outdoors.
Use a broom
or vacuum to remove visible webs if necessary.
Keep storage
boxes and containers sealed to prevent access by spiders.
Vacuum
frequently to pick up stray spiders.
Seal and
caulk cracks and crevices in your home or facility to restrict access.
If necessary,
use a flashlight to check for the presence of black widows at night.
Clean floors
and remove debris indoors, especially in areas where children play.
Like black widows, the brown recluse or violin spider (pictured above center)
is venomous, and prefers dark, undisturbed areas near the ground for their
webs.
Unlike the black widow, however, the brown recluse
hunts its prey away from the web. Also
unlike the black widow, these spiders don’t mind scavenging on dead insects
they might come across.
Brown recluse spider bites are seldom fatal, bites
occur in a similar manner to black widows, and most can be treated with
antibiotics. Infants, children, the
elderly, and the sick are most at risk.
These spiders are nocturnal, actively searching for
prey before returning to their web.
Indoors, they often hide in boxes temporarily for protection. Outdoors, they can be found under rocks.
Brown recluse spiders are typically not aggressive
towards people. In fact, in a six month
study, investigators found over 2,000 brown recluse spiders living in a large
house in
To lessen your chances of being bitten, you can also
use the same tips mentioned above for controlling black widows.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used inside
houses to treat cracks, wall crevices, wall voids, and attics to repel spiders
and deny harborage in these areas.
Like many insects, web-building spiders that feed at night tend to be attracted
to artificial lights.
TERMITES
Most of the structural damage caused by insects
is done by either subterranean or drywood termites.
Most subterranean termites (pictured above) infest wood only where there is
wood-soil contact. They typically live and nest underground, enter structures
or dead trees to feed, and must maintain contact with the soil to survive. They often migrate between the soil and
structures through mud tubes.
If there is a source of water such as a leaking pipe
inside a structure, complete colonies of subterranean termites may take up
permanent residence there.
Formosan termites, which are an invasive subterranean
form in
Drywood termites, on the other hand, do not require a ground contact but usually require some
moisture in the wood to flourish. Workers live their life cycle deep inside
wood, are difficult to detect, and are rarely seen. They will typically infest
the most exposed areas of your home, especially where decay is noticeable.
On quiet nights, homeowners who have acute hearing may actually be able to listen in on the sounds of termites
feeding within their walls. If you
suspect their presence, try tapping on the walls – if they are there, the
workers will typically bang their heads back at you in response. This is their way of saying, “Leave us alone,
we’re trying to eat here!”
Unlike ants or drywood termites, subterranean termites
have mostly lost their ability to climb smooth vertical surfaces such as
glass. Although these termites can still
build galleries of soil over these surfaces eventually, the use of smooth
surfaces at structural entry points does seem to slow down the progress of
these termites into buildings, thus offering some degree of short-term control.
Because treatment methods vary dramatically depending on which of these basic
"types" you have, it is recommended that you initially seek out a
pest control operator, entomologist, or other trained professional to assist
you in identifying your specific termite problem.
Please bear in mind that some of the methods mentioned here are beyond the
scope of most home and building owners to perform, and require resources you
will typically not have access to without proper licenses, professional
experience, etc. For infestations, I would definitely recommend that you allow
your local pest control operators to assist you in control and remediation.
There are, however, other methods that will help to discourage termites from
attacking your home or facility, and these are mentioned below.
To reduce exposure to termites, keep your home well sealed, watertight, and
protect exposed beams from the elements.
As humidity is reduced, wood damage and termite survival decrease.
The best time to treat any type of structure is during the construction process
when all the wood is accessible.
Rigid foam in contact with the soil can prevent
building foundations from having soil contact.
Mulches
(organic or inorganic) will attract subterranean termites to your home. Pine seems to be preferred, while cedar is
least favored, but keep in mind that moisture is the main attractant. Use bare soil around foundations and
structures instead. Termites will use
mulches as a pathway to cross chemical soil barriers to access homes. Mulches
treated with an active fungus (e.g.
Metarhizium anisopliae), however, can reduce the suitability of the mulch
as a habitat for termites.
Pre-treat new home wood construction with borates to make homes more termite
resistant. The use of borates can protect a house against subterranean termites
by creating a "barrier" of treated wood around an entire structure. Borate-treated wood can remain termite
repellent for several years.
Borate-treated
logs can be purchased to construct and protect log cabins. They offer long-term resistance to damage
from termites and other wood-boring insects.
Some large
companies including
Risk factors
associated with termite invasions include homes built with wood frames on a
monolithic slab, short gutter downspouts that discharge close to foundations,
and lack of an inspection gap.
Borate solutions can be sprayed or brushed onto untreated wood. The liquid then
soaks into the wood and is protective against subterranean and drywood termite
attacks. Deeper infestations are best treated by direct wood injections into
termite galleries.
Crawl spaces, attics, and wall voids can be treated with borate foams which are
more effective than foggers.
Older homes can also be treated with borate sprays or injections to make them
more termite resistant.
Boric acid dusts have also been shown to be effective termiticides.
Subterranean termites can also be controlled with the use of non-toxic baits
such as boric acid (e.g. Bora-Care®) within an attractant such as
moistened corrugated cardboard.
Boric acid, Bora-Care®,
and boric acid termite baits, can all be purchased commercially by the
general public. Homeowners can now bait
their own termites and hope for good results.
Borates are relatively non-toxic to humans and animals, are odorless, do not
discolor wood, do not vaporize, do not provoke allergic skin responses, do not
cause cancer, and are quite safe if properly used. Treated wood is also
fire resistant when large enough concentrations are used. Keep in mind that
borates are also herbicides, so if they leach from the wood, they have the
potential to kill plants as well.
Horse
chestnut, tree-of-heaven,
Some woods
that are more susceptible to attack by termites are pecan, pine, sugar maple,
red gum, and birch.
For
termites, their favorite foods include toilet paper, paper towels, and cork.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used inside houses to treat
cracks, wall crevices, wall voids, and attics to repel drywood termites and
deny harborage in these areas.
Eugenol, found in cloves and some perfumes is repellent to termites.
Some studies
have shown that catnip oil is repellent to subterranean termites. Termites tend to stop tunneling when they
encounter it, but mortality is not very high because workers tend to avoid
treated areas. The residual effects of
the oil also do not appear to last very long in the soil.
Cinnamon oil
and orange oil extract treatments have also been found to be toxic to termites.
Orange oil
is extracted from orange peels and acts by directly contacting and dissolving
the outside protective layer of an insect’s exoskeleton causing death by
dehydration. Oil vapors can also act as a fumigant and slow down or prevent
termites from feeding. For termite control, it is typically injected into known
termite galleries within a structure. Orange oil can be a good short-term
solution to drywood termite infestations, but because the oil does not leave
residues, it is possible that your home or structure can be re-infested in the
future.
Myrrh resins (an incense) will deter termites.
The presence
of ant colonies has been shown to be repugnant to termites.
Wood protected with stainless steel sleeves offers protection from subterranean
termites.
Crushed basaltic or granite sand barriers (e.g. Live Oak Structural) are
effective deterrents. Sand barriers at least 4" in thickness combined with
the use of larger sand particles have been shown to be impenetrable to the
subterranean termite.
Salted
barriers have been used successfully in Hawaiian homes.
Glycol compounds found in pen inks have actually induced subterranean termites
to follow trails.
Some
experiments have shown that sesame seed oil seed extracts reduced tunneling and
survival of the Formosan subterranean termite in treated sand.
Liquid nitrogen (e.g. Tallon Pest Control's Blizzard
System®) has been used as an effective extreme cold treatment for drywood
termite infestations. Nitrogen is used primarily to treat wall voids, and is
not utilized for entire structures. It is approximately 99% effective in
removing drywood termites.
Microwaves have been used successfully to heat wood (and drywood termites) to
lethal levels. They treat local areas only, and offer about 95% protection
against drywood termites. Keep in mind that wood may be susceptible to being
warped or burned when using this control option.
Etex, Ltd.'s Electrogun® uses high voltage electricity for
limited infestations of drywood termites. The Electrogun
also treats local areas only, and has claimed a minimum 90% mortality rate
against drywood termites. As with microwaves, some wood damage is possible
after treatment.
Managed air temperature extremes can be used to control drywood termites in
homes.
Isothermics, Inc. Heatwave® involves directing hot air through flexible
ducts into a structure by means of special forced-air systems with the object
of heating wood to at least 130 ° F., the lethal temperature for most insects. For large
structural drywood termite infestations, heat is the only non-chemical
treatment that is currently available. Heat treatments are at least 95%
effective.
In laboratory and field studies, subterranean termite workers were found to be
attracted to CO2, which could potentially be used in
bait formulations in the future.
Ensystex markets a bait that
uses a chitin synthesis inhibitor (Exterra's
Labyrinth®) to control subterranean termites. The active ingredient is
diflubenzuron. Though Exterra is not available
commercially, you can contact your local pesticide operator for information on
its application.
Bayer
Environmental Services also uses diflubenzuron as the main component against
subterranean termites (Bayer’s Outpost™).
Hexaflumuron
(Recruit™), diflubenzuron (Dimilin®),
noviflumuron, and chlorfluazuron have all been used
as chitin inhibitors within baits to control subterranean termites. Of these, diflubenzuron is the most widely
used.
Some studies
have shown that noviflumuron eliminates termite colonies up to 50% faster than
hexaflumuron.
Chitin
synthesis inhibitors (insect growth regulators) act by preventing termites and
other insects from successfully molting, and have been widely used around the
world. These chemicals work at very low concentrations, and are considered safe
for use around people, mammals, and other non-target organisms. They do, however, take longer to eliminate
entire colonies.
Insect growth
regulators also have the advantage of being more target-specific in their mode
of action, compared to the use of broad-spectrum insecticides which tend to
deplete populations of beneficial insects as well as the “pests”.
Baits that
use chitin inhibitors to manage subterranean termites can provide 100% control
in about two to three months.
Dow
AgroSciences also markets a chitin inhibiting bait targeting subterranean
termites that contains hexaflumuron (Sentricon’s Termite Colony Elimination
System®). It is also only available
through your local pest control operator.
Zeneca
Professional Products (Syngenta) is testing a pre-construction barrier
treatment (Impasse™) for control of subterranean termites which may give
up to ten years of protection. It consists
of a multi-layered, moisture-resistant polymer containing a pyrethroid coating.
FMC
Corporation distributes a termite bait containing sulfluramid (Firstline™). Sulfluramid works by inhibiting the digestion
of food in termites causing them to starve.
It is considered to be safe for humans and animals when used in bait
stations.
Spectrum
Industries also markets a bait containing sulfluramid for termite control (Terminate™).
Terminate™ is an example of a
termite bait that is available to homeowners who want to do their own
pest control. It is recommended that a
pest control operator inspect your home before you do your own thing, however.
Some pest
control companies sell baits, monitoring stations, and other supplies for
termite control for do-it-yourselfers.
These can be purchased online, and are marketed under the HomeChoice™
label.
Homeowners
who want to take a stab at termite control should keep in mind that if bait
stations are not installed and inspected properly, termites could gain a
foothold and the anticipated savings over other professionally installed
systems (e.g. Sentricon) could evaporate in a heartbeat.
Some studies
have shown that the proper placement of baits can lead to quicker termite
elimination. Baits and monitors that are
positioned near sites where termites are most active (e.g. near moisture
sources and mulches) exposes more termite workers to baits, and thus should
increase their mortality.
The design
and composition of baits can also impact subterranean termite control. Large baits that were composed of both paper
and wood, for example, were more attractive than smaller, paper-only baits.
BASF
Corporation produces a termite bait containing hydramethylnon (Subterfuge™). Hydramethylnon inhibits termite metabolism in
a similar manner to sulfluramid. It is
also considered to be safe when formulated for use in bait stations.
Some
evidence suggests that drywood termites can be controlled with silafluofen, which is a less toxic pyrethroid option. Drywood termite galleries have been dusted in
the past with different compounds with good results, but dry conditions seem to
be necessary for their effectiveness.
Parasitic
nematodes and fungal pathogens have been used with varying degrees of success
against termites. Treatments with these agents can be highly effective, but are
short-lived.
EcoScience
Corp. is the manufacturer of BioBlast® which
utilizes an active fungus (i.e. Metarhizium anisopliae) as a biological
control agent against drywood termites. BioBlast® is not available commercially, but
can be applied through your local pest control operator.
Metarhizium anisopliae is somewhat less effective against subterranean
termites because they manage to stay away from treated areas. Some studies suggest that certain bait
formulations (i.e. cellulose) are less repellent to subterranean termites, and,
thus, more effective.
Some
evidence suggests that another active fungus, Beauveria bassiana, is
more effective against subterranean termites after colony exposure.
Other
studies have shown that another fungus, Paecilomyces
spp., is an effective control agent against colonies of Formosan
subterranean termites.
For fungi to
be effective, termites must have direct physical contact with the spores. They do not necessarily have to consume baits
containing the fungus.
Several
devices have been developed over the years that have shown much promise in
termite control including “sniffers”, which can detect gases emitted by termite
colonies, acoustic detectors that can “hear” termites feeding, and infrared
cameras and microwave detectors that can quickly survey structures for
infestations.
When
properly trained, termite-sniffing dogs have been very successful at locating
infestations within homes, and are much less prone to errors compared to humans
when performing structural inspections.
THRIPS
Thrips are minute, plant-feeding insects that
attack flowers, leaves, and fruits. Some also feed on pollen or fungi.
Thrips are capable of causing
economic damage to crops such as cucumber, rye, wheat, and barley. Numerous thrips are also important
pollinators.
Thrips have piercing-sucking mouthparts, and can be particularly abundant in
the flower heads of daisies and dandelions.
Thrips can also transmit viruses to some crop plants such as tomatoes and
peanuts which can cause disease.
Some species of thrips (e.g. Frankiniella
bispinosa) can bite humans which can cause skin
irritations including itching and rashes in sensitive individuals. These thrips do not transmit disease, and
seem to be attracted to blue and white colored clothing.
Thrips on plants can be controlled by the following insect predators which you
can purchase for your individual use, and are available commercially from
producers and suppliers:
Predatory Anthocorid (Pirate) Bugs (Orius
spp.)
Lacewing (Chrysoperla spp.)
Predatory Mites (Ambylseius spp.)
Predatory Thrips (Franklinothrips spp.)
Parasitoid Wasp (Thripobius semiluteus)
Thrips outbreaks are often due to water-stressed plants, and are most numerous
during the late spring and summer.
Watering plants and the surrounding soil will help strengthen plants and
reduce their numbers.
Some
evidence suggests that electrical fields from thunderstorms may affect the
behavior of migrating thrips.
The
population growth of thrips is often tied to the abundance of available
flowers.
Petunias are especially susceptible to thrips.
Avoid
feeding plants nitrogen which encourages thrips to reproduce.
Diatomaceous earth can be used as a desiccant control for thrips.
Garlic sprays and soap sprays with citrus oil or pyrethrin can be used to
suppress thrip populations.
Neem tree extract sprays have also been used successfully against thrips.
Thrips exclusionary screening materials are available commercially for use in
greenhouses.
The use of
UV-reflective mulches can significantly reduce the number of thrips appearing
on many vegetable crops.
In
Sticky traps and tapes can also be used to control and repel thrips. Thrips seem to prefer the colors blue,
yellow, or white over other colors when they respond to traps. Traps that are
brightly colored with a dark contrasting background will also attract more
thrips.
Models mimicking
the chrysanthemum flower have also been used to attract thrips.
Selected fungi (e.g. Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae)
have been used in greenhouses and in the field to control thrips. Increasing the humidity in greenhouses
resulted in a significant increase in infection rates against thrips when using
B. bassiana.
In
laboratory experiments, other fungi (e.g. Lecanicillium spp.)
have shown their ability to cause mortality in thrips as well.
Dutch
studies have shown that some bacterial strains (e.g. Photorhabdus
temperata) are orally toxic to
thrips.
Beneficial
parasitic nematodes can be used to control the early instar and pupal stages of
thrips which develop in the soil.
Nematodes seem to be more effective when there are wetter soil
conditions. Some nematodes (e.g. Thripinema fuscum)
have been able to induce sterility in female thrips.
Studies in
greenhouses using the beneficial nematode, Thripinema
nicklewoodi, indicated that they could become
established against the western flower thrips.
Predatory
mites (e.g. Ambylseius cucmeris)
have also been used to control western flower thrips; indeed, the presence of
mites causes some thrips larvae to just drop off of plants. Combining both mites and nematodes have
usually resulted in increased reductions of thrips on plants as well.
Helicopter
applications using the plant extract sabadilla in a sugar solution have
been used to control thrips in trees.
Insect growth regulators
(e.g. diflubenzuron and triflumuron) used in planting mediums have been shown
to reduce the number of emerging thrips from the soil.
Cinnamon oil (e.g. Cinnacure®) sprays have shown some success in
controlling thrip populations.
Cashew shell
extracts have shown promise in reducing thrip populations.
Horticultural or mineral oils (e.g. rapeseed or Sunspray Ultra-fine®)
have also shown effectiveness in reducing thrips.
Fish oils
have also shown some promise in repelling or limiting thrip populations.
Patience and
weekly oil spraying may be necessary to completely eliminate thrips from
plants.
Some
evidence has shown that thymol (thyme oil) and carvacrol (origanum oil) reduced
feeding and deterred thrips from ovipositing on leaves in controlled
experiments.
TICKS
Ticks are parasitic,
blood-feeding arthropods that mainly attack mammals, birds, and reptiles.
Ticks are
vectors of many diseases including Rocky Mountain spotted fever, relapsing
fever, Lyme disease, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, and tularemia.
In
Children 5-9 years of age are among the most
susceptible group to a tick bite. Tick
bites on children frequently occur on the upper parts of the body, especially
on the head, neck, and under the armpit, so if you have a child that likes to
take romps through the forest, visual inspections (and prompt tick removal) can
be helpful in the prevention of disease (adults are more likely to be bitten on
the lower legs).
As is the case with most blood-feeding insects, carbon
dioxide (from your expired breath) will also attract ticks to you. Some ticks can recognize chemical cues left
behind by passing animals or humans on plants, and may wait patiently on or near
these areas to ambush their host.
Some studies
indicate that ticks are also attracted to squalene, which is an abundant,
naturally occurring skin secretion found in humans and mammals.
Ticks can settle and feed in moist areas such as around the groin, navel, and
behind the knees. They also prefer to
bite in unexposed areas (out of direct sunlight).
Some ticks,
such as the American dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis) (pictured above left), favor the head and
neck areas for attachment.
In US
studies in
Depending on
the age of the tick and the person bitten, ticks may spend up to 24 hours on
your body before they even begin to feed, but may need only 8 hours before
disease may be transmitted. Infection is
transmitted faster by adult ticks.
An
interesting Swedish study found that women 40 years or older had an almost 50%
greater risk of attracting ticks to them than men of the same age. Moreover, they had an almost 100% higher risk of being bitten than men who were younger
than 40 years of age.
Keep in mind that ticks are attracted to light-colored clothing. Some
entomologists advise people to wear light colors to make ticks more visible to you,
in which case, they can be spotted and removed easier. My suggestion is to wear
dark clothing to reduce your exposure, and follow some of the other
recommendations given below.
To lessen your exposure to ticks:
Wear a hat
and closed-toe shoes.
Wear long
pants (tucked into socks).
Use
repellents.
Inspect your
own (or your child’s) body daily for ticks.
Reduce tick
habitat by removing leaf litter and woodpiles, mowing grasses, and clearing
brush.
Build fences to
exclude deer from residential yards.
Stay on
trails if you are hiking in the forest.
Do not feed
birds during the summer.
Control
exposure to pets by checking them frequently for ticks.
Wear dark clothing
(ticks are attracted to white and light colors).
Keep in mind that ticks attached to clothing that is
laundered in washing machines are not always killed outright. Young (nymphal) ticks have survived hot water
washes using detergents in experiments.
Setting clothes dryers to high heat for at least an hour should insure
tick mortality on clothing, however.
Forests, lawns, areas with leaf litter or shrub cover, and watered areas all
tend to be desired habitats for ticks.
Ticks that
transmit Lyme disease prefer moist, humid conditions, and are sensitive to
dehydration.
Homes built
near the forest edge are especially prone to having increased numbers of ticks
in the area.
If you live adjacent to woodlands, creating a barrier
several feet wide of wood chips, mulch, or gravel between your grass and the
woods, will offer increased protection against tick bites.
Nymphal (young) ticks are often found in leaf litter,
and can also be found concentrated near stone walls and on hollow, fallen logs.
These sites provide ideal nesting areas for mice and other small rodents that
they feed upon. Adult ticks seem to prefer tall grasses. Keeping your backyard
mowed and free of debris will greatly reduce their numbers.
If you play golf, you may want to know that deer ticks
(currently known as black-legged ticks and pictured above right) are often
present in large numbers in the surrounding woods adjacent to fairways. They
are much less common on fairways due to the closely mowed grasses there. If you
are less than a scratch golfer, you may want to examine more than your game
after a round or two.
In forests,
black-legged ticks tend to be more numerous when their vertebrate hosts (such
as deer) are also more abundant.
Ticks tend to migrate and congregate along roadsides
and along the road edges of adjacent fields. They may be attracted to the
carbon dioxide emitted by passing car exhausts in their search for prey. Mowing
these areas will help greatly to reduce their numbers here.
Ticks can survive the cold. In fact, deer ticks have been captured in
areas where there was 70% snow cover and temperatures as low as 28° F.
Ticks can be attracted to alternate sources of CO2 such as dry
ice.
Eliminate mouse breeding sites such as abandoned bird
nests, tree cavities, woodpiles, etc. which attract ticks.
In studies in
Cats have fewer ticks than dogs due to their more
efficient grooming habits.
Birds are the primary predators of ticks; however, ants, spiders, beetles,
mites, and some mice also feed on them. There are also minute wasps (chalcids) that parasitize and kill ticks.
Chickens like to eat ticks as well, and may even have
potential as biological control agents. Ticks will also prey on each other when
overcrowded on the same host.
Clothing
treated with 0.5% permethrin (e.g. Permanone®), a botanical derived from
Chrysanthemum flowers, can be a very effective long-term (up to two
weeks) treatment against biting ticks.
Ticks are killed when they come in contact with the treated cloth.
Clothing
treated with 7.8% 2-undecanone
(e.g. BioUD®), a botanical derived from tomato plants, can also be an
effective long-term (up to five weeks) treatment against biting ticks such as
the lone star tick.
3M
Corporation markets a product called 3M Ultrathon® which is a very effective, though
expensive, timed-release tick repellent used by the
Diatomaceous earth can be used as a desiccant control
for ticks.
Silica gel can also be rubbed into the fur of cats and dogs for an effective
tick control.
Use repellent garlic extracts or soap sprays with citrus oil or pyrethrin to
deter ticks.
Myrrh extracts are potent acaracides.
A 2% emulsion of basil, cedar, grapefruit, oregano, or avocado oil can also be
used to repel ticks.
Cedar sawdust has been used as an effective, but
temporary, barrier method against nymphal ticks between forest and lawn
interfaces near suburban homes.
Brazilian studies have shown that thyme oil can be
used to repel tick larvae.
A Swedish study suggested that the use of a lemon
eucalyptus extract (Citriodiol) was effective in reducing the number of tick
bites and tick-borne infections there.
Other Swedish studies indicate that neem-based oil
sprays were effective repellents against tick nymphs.
Additional
evidence from
Parasitic
nematodes (e.g. Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp.) can infect
and reduce the number of adult ticks in infested areas.
The fungi, Metarhizium
anisopliae (e.g. Bioblast®), and Beauveria
bassiana (e.g. BotaniGard™) have both
shown some promise in controlling tick populations in areas of high tick
density.
The main
drawback to using fungi to control ticks is that it may take several weeks for
good results. Experiments have shown that unfed larvae, nymphs, and adult ticks
are more susceptible to infection.
The berry
essential oil of pimento (allspice) (Pimenta
dioica) has been found to be an effective
acaracide due to its high eugenol content.
The
essential oil of oregano has also been found to be an effective acaracide.
Lyme disease
vaccines (e.g. LYMErix) are about 76% effective in
preventing disease, but are costly and can have unpleasant side effects such as
chronic arthritis in some sensitive individuals. For this reason, the manufacturer withdrew
the vaccine in 2002.
WASPS
Wasps comprise a
large group of insects whose members include scavengers, predators,
parasitoids, and plant-eaters.
Some wasps are also important pollinators.
Like spiders, many wasps are good general predators in home gardens.
Yellowjackets (pictured above left) can nest in the ground, inside buildings
and homes, and in trees and shrubs.
Yellowjackets are more sensitive to nest disturbance and more aggressive in
their defense than other wasps.
Yellowjackets are attracted to garbage cans, dumpsters, food preparation
counters, and playgrounds, where they search for protein and sweets.
Ripened apple and pear are among the most attractive odors to foraging
yellowjacket workers and queens.
Yellowjacket workers also like processed meat baits such as beef,
chicken and fish. In
Grenadine is
another effective bait for yellowjacket control. Yellowjackets also love cat food, beef,
orange soda, and Mountain Dew™.
Orange peels (not the fruit) have been found to be repellent to yellowjackets.
To lessen your exposure to yellowjackets:
Wear white
clothing (yellowjackets are attracted to bright colors).
Avoid wearing
perfumes and other sweet-smelling products.
Going
barefoot in the garden risks stings by foraging ground wasps.
Try to stay
calm when initially confronted by a wasp.
Slow,
deliberate movements will lessen your likelihood of being stung.
Quick motions
will scare wasps and make them more likely to sting.
Slowly and
carefully brush off a wasp that has landed on someone.
Avoid
smashing yellowjackets which may prompt others to attack.
Mowing lawns
may agitate yellowjackets nesting underground.
Avoid
drinking sweet drinks in open containers if wasps are in the area.
Commercially available cone-type baited traps can be used on a long-term basis
for yellowjacket control (outside the home).
If a yellowjacket nest must be removed, do not attempt to remove it yourself.
Seek out a professional pest control operator to assist you.
Studies in
Paper wasps (pictured above right) build nests that consist of a more or less
circular horizontal comb of paper cells which are often suspended from a
support by a slender stalk.
Paper wasps often can be found nesting under the eaves of homes or under some
other suitable structure which gives the nest protection against the elements.
Paper wasps are not as aggressive as yellowjackets, but will actively defend
their nests. They will sting only if provoked; therefore, it is not necessary
to try to remove every nest that you encounter.
I can tell you this from experience, because I once stayed briefly in a
thatched, adobe home in
If you leave paper wasps alone, they will leave you alone, and will
happily take care of some of the caterpillars and other insects that feed on
your trees and garden plants.
Like paper wasps, bald-faced hornets (pictured above center) will only sting if
provoked or threatened.
Hornets often build nests above ground that are exposed to the elements, and
their paper nests can be over a foot in diameter.
As with yellowjackets, do not try to remove hornet nests on your own. Seek
professional assistance.
Silica gel and diatomaceous earth can both be used inside houses to treat
cracks, wall crevices, wall voids, and attics to repel wasps and deny harborage
in these areas.
Boric acid (20%) can also be used to treat cracks and crevices.
Some wasps can be controlled with the use of soap sprays and citrus oil.
Some wasps can also be controlled with nematode sprays.
Woodstream
Corporation’s Poison Free Wasp & Hornet Spray uses an 8% Japanese mint
essential oil blend as an effective knockdown treatment.
Area wide poison baiting should only be used as a last resort when all other
methods have failed.
Whatever method you use, nests should always be removed in the evening when all
the wasps are in their nests.
WHITEFLIES
Whiteflies are minute plant-feeding insects that
resemble tiny moths.
The wings of whiteflies are often covered with a white dust or waxy powder.
Whiteflies have piercing mouthparts and often attack citrus trees and
greenhouse plants.
The silverleaf whitefly is considered the most serious
insect pest for greenhouse poinsettias.
While feeding, whiteflies often secrete honeydew which develops into a sooty
mold fungus which can damage leaves.
Whiteflies can also transmit viruses to plants which can cause disease in some
crops such as sweet potatoes, cotton, melons, squash, and tomatoes.
Whiteflies can be controlled by the following insect predators which you can
purchase for your individual use, and are available commercially from producers
and suppliers:
Predatory Bug (Macrolophus
caliginosus)
Lady Beetle (Delphastus spp.)
Lacewing (Chrysoperla spp.)
Predatory Mites (Euseius spp.)
Parasitoid Wasps (Various spp.)
Avoid feeding plants nitrogen which encourages whiteflies to reproduce.
Diatomaceous earth can be used as a desiccant control
for whiteflies.
Spiders will also reduce whitefly numbers.
Neem tree
extract sprays can be an effective control against whiteflies; however, some
studies have shown that beneficial predatory insects and parasitoids are
negatively impacted as well. Indian
studies have shown that silkworm numbers also declined in the presence of
neem-treated leaves.
Soap sprays with citrus oil or pyrethrin can help reduce whitefly numbers.
Laundry
detergent sprays such as 1% Tide®, or New Day® dishwashing
detergent can also be used to diminish whitefly infestations.
Garlic sprays have also shown effectiveness in deterring whiteflies.
The use of fish, petroleum, mineral, or vegetable oils have all been used to
repel whiteflies.
Some
evidence from
Studies out
of
SunSpray Ultra-Fine®
oil, in particular, has shown success in reducing populations of
whiteflies. This mineral oil is most
effective when applied to eggs for control of emerging nymphs.
Dawn® detergent can help prevent whitefly
adults from settling on susceptible plants.
Sticky light traps, tapes, and adhesives can all be used to control and repel
whiteflies.
Whitefly exclusionary screening materials are
available commercially for use in greenhouses.
The
predatory bug (Dicyphus hesperus) has shown much promise for controlling
whiteflies on greenhouse tomatoes. This
predator is not available commercially in the
The
predatory beetle (Serangium parcesetosum) has been used successfully in
biological control programs in
The wasp
parasitoid (Eretmocerus siphonini) has shown great potential in
controlling whiteflies in mass rearing and release experiments in
Whiteflies are more likely to be attracted to sticky
traps that are green or yellow in color.
Entomopathogenic nematodes (e.g. Steinernema
feltiae) have been used successfully against the sweet potato whitefly.
Selected fungi (e.g. Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium
anisopliae, Trialeurodes vaporariorium, Phenacocus fumosoroseus, and
Verticillium lecanii) have been used in greenhouses to control whiteflies.
The use of fungi to control
whiteflies has some drawbacks including high cost, limited shelf life,
favorable environmental conditions, slow action, and limited activity against
eggs and adults.
Reflective plastic mulches have been shown to provide sufficient protection
against whitefly damage in crops such as squash, pumpkin, and cucumber.
Some evidence suggests that
extracts from the Chinaberry tree (Melia azedarach) have significant
repellent effects against adults of the sweet potato whitefly.
Insect growth regulators
(e.g. pyriproxyfen), have not been very effective against whiteflies in
greenhouses due to high levels of resistance.
Tractor-mounted vacuum units
have been used with some success in eliminating whitefly infestations on melon
farms in
An electrostatic
insect-proof screen using insulated wiring has been developed that effectively
excludes whiteflies from greenhouses.
The screen prevents adult whiteflies from passing through spaces between
the wires of the screen.
Created on August 23, 1997
Last revised on January 24, 2010
